Antimicrobial therapy for bacterial infections

ABSTRACT

The disclosure provides compounds and methods to treat bacterial pathogenesis, and demonstrates that the  S. aureus  pigment is a virulence factor and potential novel target for antimicrobial therapy.

CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS

This application claims priority under 35 U.S.C. §119 to U.S. Provisional Application Ser. No. 60/800,564 filed May 12, 2006, the disclosure of which is incorporated herein by reference. Related application PCT/US06/14486 is incorporated herein by reference.

STATEMENT REGARDING FEDERALLY SPONSORED RESEARCH

This invention was supported in part by Grant Nos. AI048694, GM50694, GM65307 and GM073216 awarded by the National Institutes of Health. The government may have certain rights in this invention.

BACKGROUND

Ogston (1881) coined the genus Staphylococcus to describe grapelike clusters of bacteria (staphylo=grape, Gr.) recovered in pus from surgical abscesses. Shortly thereafter, Rosenbach (1884) isolated this pathogen in pure culture, and proposed the species name S. aureus (golden, Lat.) for its characteristic surface pigmentation in comparison to less virulent staphylococci that normally colonize the skin surface.

Entering its seventh decade, the era of antimicrobial therapy has greatly reduced morbidity and mortality from infectious diseases. However, the emergence of resistant microorganisms has now reached epidemic proportions and poses great challenges to the medical community. Worrisome trends are particularly evident in the pre-eminent Gram-positive bacterial pathogen S. aureus, which has become increasingly unresponsive to first-line antibiotic therapies. S. aureus is probably the most common cause of life-threatening acute bacterial infections in the world, and is capable of causing a diverse array of diseases, ranging in severity from a simple boil or impetigo to fulminant sepsis or toxic shock syndrome. S. aureus is the single leading cause of bacteremia, hospital-related (nosocomial) infections, skin and soft tissue infections, wound infections, and bone and joint infections. It is one of the most common agents of endocarditis and food poisoning.

National prospective surveillance of over 24,000 invasive bacterial isolates show disease-associated S. aureus strains with methicillin resistance (MRSA) have increased from 22% in 1995 to 57% currently. MRSA are now frequently identified in community-acquired infections as well as in hospital settings. An urgent need exists for discovery of novel classes of antibiotics to address this genuine public health crisis. A half-century of synthesizing analogs based on <10 antibacterial scaffolds has resulted in the development and marketing of >100 antibacterial agents but, with the exception of the oxazolidinone core, no new scaffolds have emerged in the past 30 years to address the emerging resistance problems.

Classic antibiotic approaches attempt to kill or suppress growth of bacteria by targeting essential cell functions such as cell wall biosynthesis, protein synthesis, DNA replication, RNA polymerase, or metabolic pathways. These conventional therapies run a higher risk of toxicity since many of these cell functions are also essential to mammalian cells and require fine molecular distinction between the microbial target and host cell counterpart(s). Second, the repetitive use of the same essential targets means that when a bacterium evolves resistance to a particular antibiotic agent during therapy, it can become simultaneously cross resistant to other agents acting on the same target, even though the bacterium has never been exposed to the other agents. Third, conventional therapies exert a “life-or-death” challenge upon the bacterium, and thus a strong selective pressure to evolve resistance to the antimicrobial agent. Finally, many current antibiotics have very broad spectrums of activity, with the side effect of eradicating many components of the normal flora, leading to undesired complications such as Clostridium difficile colitis or secondary fungal infections (e.g. Candida).

The emergence of MRSA has compromised the clinical utility of methicillin and related antibiotics (oxacillin, dicloxacillin) and all cephalosporings (e.g. cefazolin, cephalexin) in empiric therapy of S. aureus infections. MRSA often have significant levels of resistance to macrolides (e.g. erythromycin), beta-lactamase inhibitor combinations (e.g. Unasyn, Augmentin) and fluoroquinolones (e.g. ciprofloxacin), and are occasionally resistant to clindamycin, trimethoprim/sulfamethoxisol (Bactrim), and rifampin. In serious S. aureus infection, intravenous Vancomycin is the last resort, but there have now also been alarming reports of S. aureus resistance to vancomycin, an intravenous antibiotic commonly used to treat MRSA.

New anti-MRSA agents such as linezolid (Zyvox or quinupristin/dalfopristin (Synercid), both of which utilize the traditional target of binding to the ribosomal subunits to inhibit RNA synthesis, are quite expensive.

SUMMARY

The invention demonstrates that carotenoids serve as virulence/resistance factors in microbes. In one specific example, the invention demonstrates that S. aureus carotenoid is a virulence factor that impairs neutrophil killing and promotes disease pathogenesis by virtue of its antioxidant properties, 2) evidence that pharmacological inhibition of the carotenoid pigment production renders the organism more susceptible to oxidants and blood killing; and (3) evidence that squalene synthesis inhibitors can block Staphylococcus aureus pigment production, and that squalene synthesis inhibition can reduce Staphylococcus aureus pathogenicity in vivo.

The invention provides a compound comprising A compound represented by formula I or II:

wherein:

-   m is 0, 1, 2 or 3; -   n is an integer between 1 and 10 inclusive; -   each D and E are each independently selected from the group     consisting of: H, aryl, substituted aryl, alkyl, substituted alkyl,     carboxyl, aminocarbonyl, alkylsulfonylaminocarboxyl, alkoxycarbonyl,     and halo; -   M¹, M², and M³ are each independently selected from the group     consisting of metals, ammonium and esters thereof; -   R¹ is selected from the group consisting of: H, aryl, substituted     aryl, alkyl, substituted alkyl, carboxyl, aminocarbonyl,     alkylsulfonylaminocarboxyl, alkoxycarbonyl, and halo, or R′ and R²,     together with the carbons to which they are bound, can be joined to     form a 4 to 7 membered ring or a substituted 4 to 7 membered ring; -   R² is selected from the group consisting of: H, aryl, substituted     aryl, alkyl, substituted alkyl, carboxyl, aminocarbonyl,     alkylsulfonylaminocarboxyl, alkoxycarbonyl, and halo, or R² and R¹,     together with the carbons to which they are bound, can be joined to     form a 4 to 7 membered ring or a substituted 4 to 7 membered ring,     or R² and R³, together with the carbons to which they are bound, can     be joined to form a 4 to 7 membered ring or a substituted 4 to 7     membered ring; -   R³ is selected from the group consisting of: H, aryl, substituted     aryl, alkyl, substituted alkyl, carboxyl, aminocarbonyl,     alkylsulfonylaminocarboxyl, alkoxycarbonyl, and halo, or R³ and R²,     together with the carbons to which they are bound, can be joined to     form a 4 to 7 membered ring or a substituted 4 to 7 membered ring,     or R³ and R⁴, together with the carbons to which they are bound, can     be joined to form a 4 to 7 membered ring or a substituted 4 to 7     membered ring; -   R⁴ is selected from the group consisting of: H, aryl, substituted     aryl, alkyl, substituted alkyl, carboxyl, aminocarbonyl,     alkylsulfonylaminocarboxyl, alkoxycarbonyl, and halo, or R⁴ and R³,     together with the carbons to which they are bound, can be joined to     form a 4 to 7 membered ring or a substituted 4 to 7 membered ring; -   R⁵, R⁶, R⁷, R⁸, and R⁹ are each independently selected from the     group consisting of: H, aryl, substituted aryl, alkyl, substituted     alkyl, carboxyl, aminocarbonyl, alkylsulfonylaminocarboxyl,     alkoxycarbonyl, and halo; -   L is —S—, —SO—, —SO₂—, —O—, —N(R¹⁹)—, or —C(R²⁰)(R²¹)—; wherein R¹³,     R²⁰ and R²¹ are each independently selected from the group     consisting of: H, aryl, substituted aryl, alkyl, substituted alkyl,     carboxyl, aminocarbonyl, alkylsulfonylaminocarboxyl, alkoxycarbonyl,     and halo;

wherein:

-   x is 0, 1, 2, or 3; -   y is an integer between 1 and 10 inclusive; -   each G and J are independently selected from the group consisting     of: H, aryl, substituted aryl, alkyl, substituted alkyl, carboxyl,     aminocarbonyl, alkylsulfonylaminocarboxyl, alkoxycarbonyl, and halo; -   M⁴, M⁵, and M⁶ are each independently selected from the group     consisting of metals, ammonium and esters thereof; -   R¹⁰ is selected from the group consisting of: H, aryl, substituted     aryl, alkyl, substituted alkyl, carboxyl, aminocarbonyl,     alkylsulfonylaminocarboxyl, alkoxycarbonyl, and halo, or R¹⁰ and     R¹¹, together with the carbons to which they are bound, can be     joined to form a 4 to 7 membered ring or a substituted 4 to 7     membered ring; -   R¹¹ is selected from the group consisting of: H, aryl, substituted     aryl, alkyl, substituted alkyl, carboxyl, aminocarbonyl,     alkylsulfonylaminocarboxyl, alkoxycarbonyl, and halo, or R¹¹ and     R¹⁰, together with the carbons to which they are bound, can be     joined to form a 4 to 7 membered ring or a substituted 4 to 7     membered ring, or R¹¹ and R¹², together with the carbons to which     they are bound, can be joined to form a 4 to 7 membered ring or a     substituted 4 to 7 membered ring; -   R¹² is selected from the group consisting of: H, aryl, substituted     aryl, alkyl, substituted alkyl, carboxyl, aminocarbonyl,     alkylsulfonylaminocarboxyl, alkoxycarbonyl, and halo, or R¹² and     R¹¹, together with the carbons to which they are bound, can be     joined to form a 4 to 7 membered ring or a substituted 4 to 7     membered ring, or R¹² and R¹³, together with the carbons to which     they are bound, can be joined to form a 4 to 7 membered ring or a     substituted 4 to 7 membered ring; -   R¹³ is selected from the group consisting of: H, aryl, substituted     aryl, alkyl, substituted alkyl, carboxyl, aminocarbonyl,     alkylsulfonylaminocarboxyl, alkoxycarbonyl, and halo, or R¹³ and     R¹², together with the carbons to which they are bound, can be     joined to form a 4 to 7 membered ring or a substituted 4 to 7     membered ring; -   R¹⁴, R¹⁵, R¹⁶, R¹⁷ and R¹⁸ are each independently selected from the     group consisting of: H, aryl, substituted aryl, alkyl, substituted     alkyl, carboxyl, aminocarbonyl, alkylsulfonylaminocarboxyl,     alkoxycarbonyl, and halo; -   L² is —S—, —SO—, —SO₂—, —O—, —N(R²²)—, or —C(²³)(R²⁴)—; wherein R²²,     R²³ and R²⁴ are each independently selected from the group     consisting of: H, aryl, substituted aryl, alkyl, substituted alkyl,     carboxyl, aminocarbonyl, alkylsulfonylaminocarboxyl, alkoxycarbonyl,     and halo.

In another aspect, m is zero or one; n is and integer between 1 and ⁵, inclusive; each D and E are independently selected from H, alkyl, substituted alkyl and halo;

-   R¹, R², R³, R⁴, R⁵, R⁶, R⁷, R⁸, and R⁹ are each independently     selected from the group consisting of: H, aryl, substituted aryl,     alkyl, substituted alkyl, and halo; -   R¹⁹, R²⁰ and R²¹ are each independently selected from the group     consisting of: H, alkyl, and substituted alkyl; -   M¹, M^(2,) and M³ are each independently alkali metals; -   x is zero or one; -   y is and integer between 1 and ⁵, inclusive; -   each G and J are independently selected from H, alkyl, substituted     alkyl and halo; -   R¹⁰, R¹¹, R¹², R¹³, R¹⁴, R¹⁵, R¹⁶, R¹⁷, and R¹⁸ are each     independently selected from the group consisting of: H, aryl,     substituted aryl, alkyl, substituted alkyl, and halo; -   R²², R²³ and R²⁴ are each independently selected from the group     consisting of: H, alkyl, and substituted alkyl; -   M⁴, M⁵, and M⁶ are each independently alkali metals. -   In yet another aspect, m is one; n is three; -   each D and E are H; R¹ is H, F, or benzyl; R² is H, F or CF₃; R³ is     H, F, CL, CF₃, t-butyl, n-propyl, or benzyl; R⁴is H or F; R⁵, R⁶, R⁷     and R⁹ are each H; R⁶ is H or F; M¹, M², and M³ are each potassium;     L¹ is —O—, —NH— or CH₂; x is zero or one; y is three; each G and J     are H; R¹⁰, R¹¹, R¹², R¹³, R¹⁴, R¹⁵, R¹⁶, R¹⁷, and R¹⁸ are each H;     R¹² is H or CH₃, M⁴, M⁵, and M⁶ are each potassium; L² is —O—.

The invention also provides compounds comprising the following structures. Such compounds are useful inhibitors of dehydrosqualene synthase activity.

Pharmaceutically acceptable salts, prodrugs and enantiomers of any of the above are also encompassed by the invention.

The invention also provides a method of preventing or treating a bacterial infection, comprising administering to a subject inflicted with the infection an agent that inhibits the production and/or activity of a carotenoid in the bacteria. In one embodiment, the bacterial infection is a Staphylococcus infection. In another embodiment, the bacteria is a Staphylococcus sp. In yet a further embodiment, the bacteria is Staphylococcus aureus.

The invention also provides a method of preventing or treating a bacterial infection comprising administering to a subject inflicted with the infection the compound of Formula I or those, wherein the compound of Formulas I and II inhibit squalene synthase.

The invention also provides a method of preventing, treating or improving the effective treatment of MRSA by contacting a microbe expressing a squalene synthase with a squalene synthase inhibitor.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE FIGURES

FIG. 1A-E shows a genetic manipulation of Staphylococcus aureus carotenoid pigment and its antioxidant function. A) Biochemical pathway for S. aureus carotenogenesis and mutagenesis of crtM (encoding dehydrosqualene synthase) by allelic replacement. B) Elimination of S. aureus pigmentation in ΔcrtM mutant; heterologous expression of S. aureus 4′4′-diaponeurosporene pigment in Streptococcus pyogenes. Increased susceptibility of the S. aureus ΔCrtM mutant to killing by C) hydrogen peroxide or D) singlet oxygen, with restoration of WT resistance levels upon complementation with pCrtMN. E) Decreased singlet oxygen susceptibility of S. pyogenes expressing 4′4′-diaponeurosporene. Error bars represent standard deviation of depicted variable; results shown are representative of at least three experiments.

FIG. 2A-F shows Staphylococcus aureus carotenoid pigment confers resistance to oxidant killing in neutrophils and whole blood. Survival of WT and ΔCrtM S. aureus in A) coculture with isolated human neutrophils and B) murine whole blood. Also shown in (B) is whole blood survival of ΔCrtM complemented with vector alone or pCrtMN. (C) Effect of plasmid expression of crtMN on survival of Streptococcus pyogenes in mouse whole blood. D) Effect of oxidative burst inhibitor DPI on survival of WT and ΔCrtM mutant S. aureus human neutrophil coculture. Relative survival of WT and ΔCrtM mutant S. aureus in E) normal and gp47^(phox−/−) patient lacking NADPH oxidase function or F) the blood of wild-type CD1 and C57B1/6 mice and gp91^(Phox−/−) mice. Results representative of at least three experiments. The assay using blood from the CGD human patient was performed twice.

FIG. 3A-C shows Staphylococcus aureus carotenoid contributes to virulence in a subcutaneous abscess model. Mice were injected subcutaneously in opposite flanks with the two bacterial strains under comparison. Line graphs depict sum cumulative skin lesion size generated by the indicated bacterial strain. Dots on scatter graphs=ratio of cfu of pigmented vs. nonpigmented strains recovered from skin lesions in each individual mouse. Photographic image depicts representative mouse in each treatment group. A) Wild-type (WT) vs. ΔCrtM mutant S. aureus in CD1 mice, B) WT vs. ΔCrtM mutant S. aureus in gp91^(Phox−/−) mice, and C) Streptococcus pyogenes+/−expression of staphylococcal 4′4′-diaponeurosporene.

FIG. 4A-B shows the inhibition of Staphylococcus aureus pigment production increases oxidant sensitivity and phagocytic clearance. Wild-type and ΔCrtM mutant S. aureus were cultured in the presence or absence of SKF 525-A at the indicated concentrations. Depicted are the observed effects on A) pigmentation phenotype, B) singlet oxygen susceptibility, and C) survival in murine whole blood. Results shown are representative of at least three experiments.

FIG. 5A-D demonstrates a lack of pleiomorphic effects upon allelic replacement of the S. aureus crtM gene. A) Similarity of stationary phase concentrations of viable bacteria in stationary phase cultures of WT S. aureus vs. ΔcrtM mutant and subsequent growth kinetics of bacteria in fresh THB media. Lack of measurable difference between WT S. aureus and ΔcrtM mutant in terms of B) buoyant density assessed by migration in Percoll, C) hydrophobicity as measured by partition into N-hexadecane, and D) surface charge determined by cytochrome C binding.

FIG. 6A-F shows a further analyses regarding the antiphagocytic properties of the Staphylococcus aureus carotenoid pigment. A) WT and ΔcrtM mutant S. aureus are phagocytosed by human neutrophils at a comparable rate. Deconvolution fluorescence microscopy of representative study shows intracellular (green) and extracellular (red) organisms. B) WT and ΔcrtM mutant S. aureus provoke similar degrees of human neutrophil oxidative burst as measured by nitroblue tetrazolium reduction. C) Effect of oxidative burst inhibitor diphenyleneiodonium (DPI) on survival of WT and ΔCrtM mutant S. aureus in normal mouse blood. Sensitivity of WT and ΔCrtM mutant S. aureus strains to killing by D) the granule proteases cathepsin G and human neutrophil elastase or E) the murine cathelicidin mCRAMP. F) Differences in neutrophil intracellular survival between S. aureus WT and ΔCrtM mutant S. aureus are similar in experiments using preopsonization with autologous serum as those without (e.g. FIG. 6A).

FIG. 7 shows S. aureus pigmentation after 2 days at 37° C. with shaking.

FIG. 8 shows the effect of the compound of Formula III at 40 mM on whole blood killing of S. aureus. There was a major enhancement in whole blood killing of S. aureus with a ⁻3 fold enhancement at 40˜3 fold enhancement at 40 μM (ED₅₀ ˜20 μM).

FIG. 9A-B shows that in the presence of the compound of Formula III in an in vivo mouse model of S. aureus skin infection there was a major decrease in lesion size at (A) 200 μM or (B) 1000 μM with no apparent ill effects.

FIG. 10 shows an additional study using a systemic (intraperitoneal) challenge model in mice that pigment conferred a survival advantage to the bacteria. Here cfu counts are measured in the kidneys.

FIG. 11 shows the effect of the compound of Formula III administration on S. aureus systemic infection.

FIG. 12A-B shows 4/6 untreated mice had detectable bacteria in the spleen (A) or kidneys (B) after 4 days. 0/6 mice treated with the compound of Formula III had detectable bacteria in either organ.

FIG. 13 shows data obtained from a more lipophilic derivative of comprising formula IV.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION

As used herein and in the appended claims, the singular forms “a,” “and,” and “the” include plural referents unless the context clearly dictates otherwise. Thus, for example, reference to “a compound” includes a plurality of such compounds and reference to “the cell” includes reference to one or more cells known to those skilled in the art, and so forth.

Unless defined otherwise, all technical and scientific terms used herein have the same meaning as commonly understood to one of ordinary skill in the art to which this disclosure belongs. Although methods and materials similar or equivalent to those described herein can be used in the practice of the disclosed methods and compositions, the exemplary methods, devices and materials are described herein.

The publications discussed above and throughout the text are provided solely for their disclosure prior to the filing date of the present application. Nothing herein is to be construed as an admission that the inventors are not entitled to antedate such disclosure by virtue of prior disclosure.

Subsequent studies of the S. aureus pigment have unraveled an elaborate biosynthetic pathway that produces a series of carotenoids. Similar carotenoids produced in dietary fruits and vegetables are well recognized as potent antioxidants by virtue of their free radical scavenging properties and exceptional ability to quench singlet oxygen. The invention demonstrates that these anti-oxidant carotenoids produced by bacterial pathogens assist the pathogen in protecting itself from oxidative burst during infection. Developing new classes of antibiotics that target bacterial virulence factors such as the S. aureus carotenoid pigment is an approach that has not been utilized.

Methods and compositions useful for treatment of microbial infections are provided. In one aspect the invention provides compositions and methods useful for treating a microbial infection wherein the microbe produces a carotenoid. For example, methods and compositions useful for the treatment of S. aureus infections, including those produced by methicillin- and vancomycin-resistant strains, are provided by the invention. The methods and compositions of the invention can be used alone or in combination with traditional antimicrobials and antibiotics to treat such infections. In addition, the methods and compositions disclosed herein can be used in settings such as foreign-body, catheter or endovascular infections, chronic osteomyeletis, hospital acquired or post-operative infections, recurrent skin infections, or for S. aureus infections in the immunocompromised host. The invention demonstrates that by reducing the production of carotenoids there is a reduced resistance in microbial that normal comprise such carotenoids to resist oxidative bursts.

A leading human pathogen Staphylococcus aureus (S. aureus) was named secondary to it characteristic golden yellow pigmentation (aureus=golden, Latin) in comparison to less virulent staphylococci (e.g. S. epidermidis) that normally colonize the skin surface. Subsequent research regarding the S. aureus pigment unraveled an elaborate biosynthetic pathway that produces a series of carotenoids. Similar carotenoids produced in dietary fruits and vegetables are well recognized as potent antioxidants by virtue of their free radical scavenging properties and exceptional ability to quench singlet oxygen. The S. aureus pigment has similar properties. The invention examined whether S. aureus could utilize its golden carotenoid pigment to resist oxidant based clearance mechanisms of the host innate immune system. For example, neutrophils and macrophages kill bacteria by generating an “oxidative burst” of reactive molecules such as peroxide, bleach and singlet oxygen that kill bacteria that they have phagocytosed.

Golden color imparted by carotenoid pigments is the eponymous feature of the human pathogen Staphylococcus aureus. A molecular genetic analysis pairing mutagenesis and heterologous expression was used to show that this hallmark phenotype is in fact a virulence factor, serving to protect the bacterium from phagocytic killing through its antioxidant properties. In the present era, effective control of this important disease agent is compromised by rapid evolution of antimicrobial resistance in both community and hospital settings. The invention demonstrates that the inhibition of carotenogenesis offers a therapeutic approach to the treatment of complicated S. aureus infections, effectively rendering the pathogen more susceptible to clearance by normal host innate immune defenses.

Carotenoids represent a major class of natural pigments. More than 600 different carotenoids have been identified in bacteria, fungi, algae, plants and animals (Staub, O., In: Pfander, H. (ed.), Key to Carotenoids, 2^(nd) ed., Birkhuser Verlag, Basel). They function as accessory pigments in photosynthesis, as antioxidants, as precursors for vitamins in humans and animals and as pigments for light protection and species specific coloration. Carotenoids have historically been of interest, e.g., for pharmaceuticals, food colorants, and animal feed and nutrient supplements. The discovery that these natural products can play an important role in the prevention of cancer and chronic disease (mainly due to their antioxidant properties) and, more recently, that they exhibit significant tumor suppression activity due to specific interactions with cancer cells, has boosted interest in their pharmaceutical potential (Bertram, J. S., Nutr. Rev., 1999;57:182-191; Singh, et al., Oncology, 1998;12:1643-168; Rock, C. L., Pharmacol. Ther., 1997;75:185-197; Edge, et al., J. Photochem. Photobiol., 1997;41:189-200).

Carotenoid can be produced in recombinant microorganisms by combining biosynthetic genes from different organisms to create biosynthetic pathways. At present more than 150 genes for 24 carotenogenic enzymes (crt) have been isolated from bacteria, plants, algae and fungi that can be used to engineer a variety of diverse carotenoids. For example, Staphylococcus aureus contains a bright orange pigment, staphyloxanthin. This pigment is thought to protect bacteria from attack by reactive oxygen species of the host immune system. The pigment is produced by a series of enzymes including dehydrosqualene synthase, which condenses two molecules of farnesyldiphosphate to form dehydrosqualene. These pigments are not produced by humans and other animals since the dehydrosqualene synthase gene is absent in animals. However, humans and other animals do contain a squalene synthase gene. Remarkably, the invention demonstrates that inhibitors of the human squalene synthase enzyme block pigment (staphyloxanthin) formation in S. aureus, leading to enhanced killing by immune system cells, both in vitro and in vivo.

Various techniques have been applied for cloning of carotenogenic genes (Hirschberg, J., In: Carotenoids: Biosynthesis and Metabolism, Vol. 3, Carotenoids, G. Britton, Ed. Basel: Birkhuser Verlag, 148-194, 1998). Functional color complementation in E. coli expressing carotenogenic genes from Erwinia has been used successfully for the cloning of a variety of microbial and plant carotenogenic genes (Verdoes et al., Biotech. and Bioeng., 1999, 63:750; Zhu et al., Plant and Cell Physiology, 1997, 38:357; Kajiwara et al., Plant Mol. Biol., 1995, 29:343; Pecker et al., Plant Mol. Biol., 1996, 30:807; plant carotenoid biosynthesis is reviewed in Hirschberg et al., Pure and Applied Chemistry, 1997, 69:215 1; Cunningham and Gantt, Ann. Rev. of Plant Physiol. and Plant Mol. Biol., 1998, 49:557).

Genes encoding the early carotenoid biosynthesis enzymes GGDP synthase, phytoene synthase and phytoene desaturase account for more than half of all cloned carotenogenic genes. Different phytoene desaturase genes are available that introduce two, three, four or five double bonds into phytoene to produce carotene (plant, cyanobacteria, algae) (Bartley et al., Eur. J. of Biochem., 1999, 259:396), neurosporene (Rhodobacter) (Raisig et al., J. Biochem., 1996, 119:559), lycopene (most eubacteria and fungi) (Verdoes, et al., Biotech. and Bioeng., 1999, 63:750; RuizHidalgo et al., Mol. & Gen. Genetics, 1997, 253:734) or 3,4-didehydrolycopene (Neurospora crassa) (Schmidhauser et al., Mol. and Cell Biol., 1990, 10:5064), respectively. The following are examples of carotenoid biosynthesis genes have been cloned:

-   crtE: GGPP-synthase from R. capsulatus and E. uredovora -   crtB: phytoene synthase from R. capsulatus and E. uredovora -   crtI: phytoene desaturase from E. uredovora and E. herbicola -   crtY: lycopene cyclase from E. uredevora and E. herbicola -   crtA: spheroidene monooxygenase from R. capsulatus and R. spaeroides -   crtO: β-C4-ketolase (oxygenase) from Synechocistis sp. -   crtW: β-C4-ketolase from Algaligenes sp., A. aurantiacum -   crtD: methoxyneurosporene desaturase from R. capsulatus and R.     spaeroides -   crtX: zeaxanthin glucosyl transferase from E. uredovora and E.     herbicola -   crtZ: β-carotene hydroxylase from E. uredovora and E. herbicola -   crtU: β-carotene desaturase from S. griseus -   crtM: dehydrosqualene synthase from S. aureus -   crtN: dehydrosqualene desaturase from S. aureus.

The invention demonstrates that carotenoid pigment production contributes to resistance of Group B Streptococcus (GBS) to macrophage killing. GBS is the leading cause of invasive bacterial infections such as pneumonia, sepsis and meningitis in human neonates. A gene required for production of carotenoid pigment (CylE) has been identified. The pigment is required for the organism's production of a hemolysin/cytolysin toxin that have cell damaging and proinflammatory properties important in disease pathogenesis. Other bacterial and fungal human pathogens associated with invasive infections produce carotenoid or melanin-like pigments with antioxidant properties (e.g. Aspergillus fumigatus, Burkholderia cepacia, Serratia marcesens), suggesting a common pathogenic theme and revealing a potential selective advantage for pigment production against phagocytic clearance mechanisms.

Accordingly, the approach of targeting pigment production for antimicrobial therapy can be extended to organisms that produce pigments (e.g., carotenoid pigments or other pigments that confer oxidative protection). In particular, Aspergillus sp. are an important cause of mortality in immunocompromised subjects (e.g., cancer chemotherapy) and Burkholderia cepacia is an important cause of mortality in cystic fibrosis. Both Aspergillus and Burkholderia are commonly multidrug resistant and recalcitrant to existing antibiotic therapies.

Using a molecular genetic approach of targeted gene deletion (to create nonpigmented S. aureus mutants) and cloning techniques (to express the S. aureus pigment in other bacteria), the invention provides a “living reagents” useful for screening and identifying the importance of the cartenoid pigments (e.g., pigment in S. aureus disease pathogenesis). For example, using the methods of the invention S. aureus carotenoid pigment was demonstrated to protect the bacterium against peroxide and singlet oxygen and made it more resistant to killing in mouse and human blood and by purified human neutrophils. Using a mouse model of S. aureus abscess formation, it was demonstrated that the carotenoid pigment promoted bacterial survival and disease progression in vivo. Control experiments using mice impaired in neutrophil oxidant production showed that carotenoid pigment production contributed to S. aureus virulence by virtue of its antioxidant properties.

The invention demonstrates that pharmacological inhibition of S. aureus pigment production rendered the bacterium more susceptible to oxidants and impaired bacterial survival in blood. The invention further demonstrates that squalene synthesis inhibitors can block Staphylococcus aureus pigment production, and that squalene synthesis inhibition can reduce Staphylococcus aureus pathogenicity in vivo.

One important mechanism by which phagocytic cells eliminate pathogens is through release of reactive oxygen species generated by NADPH oxidase. The invention demonstrates that carotenoids such as those expressed by S. aureus serve a protective function against these defense molecules. For example, a ΔCrtM mutant was killed 10 to 100-fold more efficiently by hydrogen peroxide and 100 to 1,000-fold more efficiently by singlet oxygen than the WT S. aureus strain. Similarly, heterologous expression of staphylococcal pigment in S. pyogenes was associated with a 100 to 1,000-fold decrease in singlet oxygen lethality.

The invention provides methods and agents that inhibited carotenogenesis for the treatment of microbial infections and to facilitate anti-microbial activity. For example, in one aspect, the mixed function oxidase inhibitor 2-diethylaminoethyl-2,2-diphenyl-valerate (SKF 525-A, Calbiochem) is shown to inhibit pigment formation in S. aureus, and a dose-dependent decrease in carotenoid production was demonstrated in the WT strain of S. aureus grown in the presence of the agent. Blocking S. aureus pigment formation led to a commensurate dose-dependent increase in the susceptibility of the organism to singlet oxygen killing and a decrease in its ability to survive in human whole blood. As a control, the ΔCrtM mutant was exposed to SKF 525-A in parallel experiments with no significant effects on oxidant susceptibility or blood survival.

The invention provides methods and compositions useful for treating bacterial infection by inhibiting the production and/or activity of carotenoids. More particularly, the invention provides methods of treating a subject having a bacterial infection (e.g., a bacterial infection of Staphylococcus sp.) comprising contacting a subject with an agent that inhibits the activity and/or production of a carotenoid of the Staphylococcus sp. In one aspect, the agent is a small molecule, a polynucleotide (e.g., a ribozyme or antisense molecule), a polypeptide (e.g., an antibody) or a peptidomimetic. In one aspect of the invention, the agent is a pharmacologic agent that inhibits carotenogenesis. For example, the agent can be a mixed function oxidase inhibitor such as 2-diethylaminoethyl-2,2-diphenyl-valerate (SKF 525-A, Calbiochem), 2,4-dichloro-6-phenylphenoxyethylamine, 2,4-dichloro-6-phenylphenoxyethyldiethylamine, and piperonyl butoxide. In yet another aspect, the agent can comprise a squalene synthetase inhibitor. The squalene synthetase inhibitors suitable for use herein include, but are not limited to, α-phosphono-sulfonates disclosed in U.S. Pat. No. 5,712,396, those disclosed by Biller et al, J. Med. Chem., 1988, Vol. 31, No. 10, pp 1869-1871, including isoprenoid (phosphinyl-methyl)phosphonates, as well as other known squalene synthetase inhibitors, for example, as disclosed in U.S. Pat. Nos. 4,871,721 and 4,924,024 and in Biller, S. A., Neuenschwander, K., Ponpipom, M. M., and Poulter, C. D., Current Pharmaceutical Design, 2, 1-40 (1996). In addition, other squalene synthetase inhibitors suitable for use herein include the terpenoid pyrophosphates disclosed by P. Ortiz de Montellano et al, J. Med. Chem., 1977, 20, 243-249, the farnesyl diphosphate analog A and presqualene pyrophosphate (PSQ-PP) analogs as disclosed by Corey and Volante, J. Am. Chem. Soc., 1976, 98, 1291-1293, phosphinylphosphonates reported by McClard, R. W. et al, J.A.C.S., 1987, 109, 5544 and cyclopropanes reported by Capson, T. L., PhD dissertation, June, 1987, Dept. Med. Chem. U of Utah, Abstract, Table of Contents, pp 16, 17, 40-43, 48-51, Summary.

Small molecule crtM inhibitors include the following and derivatives and salts thereof. A crtM inhibitor of the disclosure has a general formula:

The invention provides compounds and methods of using such compounds to treat microbial infections. The compounds of the invention are represented by formula I or II:

wherein:

-   m is 0, 1, 2 or 3; -   n is an integer between 1 and 10 inclusive; -   each D and E are each independently selected from the group     consisting of: H, aryl, substituted aryl, alkyl, substituted alkyl,     carboxyl, aminocarbonyl, alkylsulfonylaminocarboxyl, alkoxycarbonyl,     and halo; -   M¹, M², and M³ are each independently selected from the group     consisting of metals, ammonium and esters thereof; -   R¹ is selected from the group consisting of: H, aryl, substituted     aryl, alkyl, substituted alkyl, carboxyl, aminocarbonyl,     alkylsulfonylaminocarboxyl, alkoxycarbonyl, and halo, or R¹ and R²,     together with the carbons to which they are bound, can be joined to     form a 4 to 7 membered ring or a substituted 4 to 7 membered ring; -   R² is selected from the group consisting of: H, aryl, substituted     aryl, alkyl, substituted alkyl, carboxyl, aminocarbonyl,     alkylsulfonylaminocarboxyl, alkoxycarbonyl, and halo, or R² and R¹,     together with the carbons to which they are bound, can be joined to     form a 4 to 7 membered ring or a substituted 4 to 7 membered ring,     or R² and R³, together with the carbons to which they are bound, can     be joined to form a 4 to 7 membered ring or a substituted 4 to 7     membered ring; -   R³ is selected from the group consisting of: H, aryl, substituted     aryl, alkyl, substituted alkyl, carboxyl, aminocarbonyl,     alkylsulfonylaminocarboxyl, alkoxycarbonyl, and halo, or R³ and R²,     together with the carbons to which they are bound, can be joined to     form a 4 to 7 membered ring or a substituted 4 to 7 membered ring,     or R³ and R⁴, together with the carbons to which they are bound, can     be joined to form a 4 to 7 membered ring or a substituted 4 to 7     membered ring; -   R⁴ is selected from the group consisting of: H, aryl, substituted     aryl, alkyl, substituted alkyl, carboxyl, aminocarbonyl,     alkylsulfonylaminocarboxyl, alkoxycarbonyl, and halo, or R⁴ and R³,     together with the carbons to which they are bound, can be joined to     form a 4 to 7 membered ring or a substituted 4 to 7 membered ring; -   R⁵, R⁶, R⁷, R⁸, and R⁹ are each independently selected from the     group consisting of: H, aryl, substituted aryl, alkyl, substituted     alkyl, carboxyl, aminocarbonyl, alkylsulfonylaminocarboxyl,     alkoxycarbonyl, and halo; -   L¹ is —S—, —SO—, —SO₂—, —O—, —N(R¹⁹)—, or —C(R²⁰)(R²¹)—; wherein     R¹⁹, R²⁰ and R²¹ are each independently selected from the group     consisting of: H, aryl, substituted aryl, alkyl, substituted alkyl,     carboxyl, aminocarbonyl, alkylsulfonylaminocarboxyl, alkoxycarbonyl,     and halo;

wherein:

-   x is 0, 1, 2, or 3; -   y is an integer between 1 and 10 inclusive; -   each G and J are independently selected from the group consisting     of: H, aryl, substituted aryl, alkyl, substituted alkyl, carboxyl,     aminocarbonyl, alkylsulfonylaminocarboxyl, alkoxycarbonyl, and halo; -   M⁴, M⁵, and M⁶ are each independently selected from the group     consisting of metals, ammonium and esters thereof; -   R¹⁰ is selected from the group consisting of: H, aryl, substituted     aryl, alkyl, substituted alkyl, carboxyl, aminocarbonyl,     alkylsulfonylaminocarboxyl, alkoxycarbonyl, and halo, or R¹⁰ and     R¹¹, together with the carbons to which they are bound, can be     joined to form a 4 to 7 membered ring or a substituted 4 to 7     membered ring; -   R¹¹ is selected from the group consisting of: H, aryl, substituted     aryl, alkyl, substituted alkyl, carboxyl, aminocarbonyl,     alkylsulfonylaminocarboxyl, alkoxycarbonyl, and halo, or R¹¹ and     R¹⁰, together with the carbons to which they are bound, can be     joined to form a 4 to 7 membered ring or a substituted 4 to 7     membered ring, or R¹¹ and R¹², together with the carbons to which     they are bound, can be joined to form a 4 to 7 membered ring or a     substituted 4 to 7 membered ring; -   R¹² is selected from the group consisting of: H, aryl, substituted     aryl, alkyl, substituted alkyl, carboxyl, aminocarbonyl,     alkylsulfonylaminocarboxyl, alkoxycarbonyl, and halo, or R¹² and     R¹¹, together with the carbons to which they are bound, can be     joined to form a 4 to 7 membered ring or a substituted 4 to 7     membered ring, or R¹² and R¹³, together with the carbons to which     they are bound, can be joined to form a 4 to 7 membered ring or a     substituted 4 to 7 membered ring; -   R¹³ is selected from the group consisting of: H, aryl, substituted     aryl, alkyl, substituted alkyl, carboxyl, aminocarbonyl,     alkylsulfonylaminocarboxyl, alkoxycarbonyl, and halo, or R¹³ and     R¹², together with the carbons to which they are bound, can be     joined to form a 4 to 7 membered ring or a substituted 4 to 7     membered ring; -   R¹⁴, R¹⁵, R¹⁶, R¹⁷, and R¹⁸ are each independently selected from the     group consisting of: H, aryl, substituted aryl, alkyl, substituted     alkyl, carboxyl, aminocarbonyl, alkylsulfonylaminocarboxyl,     alkoxycarbonyl, and halo; -   L² is —S—, —SO—, —SO₂—, —O—, —N(R²²)—, or —C(R²³)(R²⁴)—; wherein     R²², R²³ and R²⁴ are each independently selected from the group     consisting of: H, aryl, substituted aryl, alkyl, substituted alkyl,     carboxyl, aminocarbonyl, alkylsulfonylaminocarboxyl, alkoxycarbonyl,     and halo.

In another aspect, of the invention, m is zero or one; n is and integer between 1 and 5, inclusive;

-   each D and E are independently selected from H, alkyl, substituted     alkyl and halo; -   R¹, R², R³, R⁴, R⁵, R⁶, R⁷, R⁸, and R⁹ are each independently     selected from the group consisting of: H, aryl, substituted aryl,     alkyl, substituted alkyl, and halo; -   R¹⁹, R²⁰ and R²¹ are each independently selected from the group     consisting of: H, alkyl, and substituted alkyl; -   M¹, M², and M³ are each independently alkali metals; -   x is zero or one; -   y is and integer between 1 and 5, inclusive; -   each G and J are independently selected from H, alkyl, substituted     alkyl and halo; -   R¹⁰, R¹¹, R¹², R¹³, R¹⁴, R¹⁵, R¹⁶, R¹⁷, and R¹⁸ are each     independently selected from the group consisting of: H, aryl,     substituted aryl, alkyl, substituted alkyl, and halo; -   R²², R²³ and R²⁴ are each independently selected from the group     consisting of: H, alkyl, and substituted alkyl; -   M⁴, M⁵, and M⁶ are each independently alkali metals.

In yet another aspect, m is one;

-   n is three; -   each D and E are H; -   R¹ is H, F, or benzyl; -   R² is H, F or CF₃; -   R³ is H, F, CL, CF₃, t-butyl, n-propyl, or benzyl; -   R⁴ is H or F; -   R⁵, R⁶, R⁷ and R⁹ are each H; -   R⁸ is H or F; -   M¹, M², and M³ are each potassium; -   L¹ is —O—, —NH— or CH₂; -   x is zero or one; -   y is three; -   each G and J are H; -   R¹⁰, R¹¹, R¹³, R¹⁴, R¹⁵, R¹⁶, R¹⁷, and R¹⁸ are each H; -   R¹² is H or CH₃ -   M⁴, M⁵, and M⁶ are each potassium; -   L² is —O—.

In a specific embodiment, the compound is selected from the group consisting of:

-   potassium 1-sulfonato-4-(3-(4-fluorophenoxy)-phenyl)-butyl     phosphonate; -   potassium 1-sulfonato-4-(3-(3,5-difluorophenoxy)-phenyl)-butyl     phosphonate; -   (1S) potassium 1-sulfonato-4-(3-phenoxyphenyl)-butyl phosphonate; -   potassium 1-sulfonato-4-(3-(4-chlorophenoxy)-phenyl)-butyl     phosphonate; -   potassium 1-sulfonato-4-(3-(3,4-difluorophenoxy)-phenyl)-butyl     phosphonate; -   potassium 1-sulfonato-4-(3-(3-trifluoromethylphenoxy)-phenyl)-butyl     phosphonate; -   potassium 1-sulfonato-4-(3-phenoxyphenyl)-butyl phosphonate; -   potassium 1-sulfonato-4-(3-(3-fluorophenoxy)-phenyl)-butyl     phosphonate; -   potassium 1-sulfonato-4-(3-(4-phenylmethylphenoxy)-phenyl)-butyl     phosphonate; -   potassium 1-sulfonato-4-(3-phenaminophenyl)-butyl phosphonate; -   potassium 1-sulfonato-4-(2-fluoro-5-(4-fluorophenoxy)-phenyl)-butyl     phosphonate; -   potassium 1-sulfonato-4-(3-phenylmethylphenyl)-butyl phosphonate;     potassium 1-sulfonato-4-(3-(2-fluorophenoxy)-phenyl)-butyl     phosphonate; -   potassium 1-sulfonato-4-(3-(3-trifluoromethylphenoxy)-phenyl)-butyl     phosphonate; -   potassium 1-sulfonato-4-(3-(4-propylphenoxy)-phenyl)-butyl     phosphonate; -   potassium 1-sulfonato-4-(4-phenoxyphenyl)-butyl phosphonate; -   potassium 1-sulfonato-4-(4-phenylphenyl)-butyl phosphonate; -   potassium     1-sulfonato-4-(3-(4-(1,1-dimethylethyl)phenoxy)-phenyl)-butyl     phosphonate; -   potassium 1-sulfonato-4-(4-(4-methylphenyl)phenyl)-butyl     phosphonate; and -   potassium 1-sulfonato-4-(3-(2-phenylmethylphenoxy)-phenyl)-butyl     phosphonate.

Alkyl groups include straight-chain, branched and cyclic alkyl groups. Alkyl groups include those having from 1 to 20 carbon atoms. Alkyl groups include small alkyl groups having 1 to 3 carbon atoms. Alkyl groups include medium length alkyl groups having from 4-10 carbon atoms. Alkyl groups include long alkyl groups having more than 10 carbon atoms, particularly those having 10-20 carbon atoms. Cyclic alkyl groups include those having one or more rings. Cyclic alkyl groups include those having a 3-, 4-, 5-, 6-, 7-, 8-, 9- or 10-member carbon ring and particularly those having a 3-, 4-, 5-, 6-, or 7-member ring. The carbon rings in cyclic alkyl groups can also carry alkyl groups. Cyclic alkyl groups can include bicyclic and tricyclic alkyl groups. Alkyl groups optionally include substituted alkyl groups. Substituted alkyl groups include among others those which are substituted with aryl groups, which in turn can be optionally substituted. Specific alkyl groups include methyl, ethyl, n-propyl, iso-propyl, cyclopropyl, n-butyl, s-butyl, t-butyl, cyclobutyl, n-pentyl, branched-pentyl, cyclopentyl, n-hexyl, branched hexyl, and cyclohexyl groups, all of which are optionally substituted. The term cyclopentyl ring refers to a ring of five carbons with any degree of unsaturation. The term cyclohexyl ring refers to a ring of six carbons with any degree of unsaturation.

Alkenyl groups include straight-chain, branched and cyclic alkenyl groups. Alkenyl groups include those having 1, 2 or more double bonds and those in which two or more of the double bonds are conjugated double bonds. Alkenyl groups include those having from 2 to 20 carbon atoms. Alkenyl groups include small alkyl groups having 2 to 3 carbon atoms. Alkenyl groups include medium length alkenyl groups having from 4-10 carbon atoms. Alkenyl groups include long alkenyl groups having more than 10 carbon atoms, particularly those having 10-20 carbon atoms. Cyclic alkenyl groups include those having one or more rings. Cyclic alkenyl groups include those in which a double bond is in the ring or in an alkenyl group attached to a ring. Cyclic alkenyl groups include those having a 3-, 4-, 5-, 6-, 7-, 8-, 9- or 10-member carbon ring and particularly those having a 3-, 4-, 5-, 6- or 7-member ring. The carbon rings in cyclic alkenyl groups can also carry alkyl groups. Cyclic alkenyl groups can include bicyclic and tricyclic alkyl groups. Alkenyl groups are optionally substituted. Substituted alkenyl groups include among others those which are substituted with alkyl or aryl groups, which groups in turn can be optionally substituted. Specific alkenyl groups include ethenyl, prop-1-enyl, prop-2-enyl, cycloprop-1-enyl, but-1-enyl, but-2-enyl, cyclobut-1-enyl, cyclobut-2-enyl, pent-1-enyl, pent-2-enyl, branched pentenyl, cyclopent-1-enyl, hex-1-enyl, branched hexenyl, cyclohexenyl, all of which are optionally substituted.

Aryl groups include groups having one or more 5- or 6-member aromatic or heteroaromatic rings. Aryl groups can contain one or more fused aromatic rings. Heteroaromatic rings can include one or more N, O, or S atoms in the ring. Heteroaromatic rings can include those with one, two or three N, those with one or two O, and those with one or two S. Aryl groups are optionally substituted. Substituted aryl groups include among others those which are substituted with alkyl or alkenyl groups, which groups in turn can be optionally substituted. Specific aryl groups include phenyl groups, biphenyl groups, pyridinyl groups, and naphthyl groups, all of which are optionally substituted.

Arylalkyl groups are alkyl groups substituted with one or more aryl groups wherein the alkyl groups optionally carry additional substituents and the aryl groups are optionally substituted. Specific alkylaryl groups are phenyl-substituted alkyl groups, e.g., phenylmethyl groups.

Alkylaryl groups are aryl groups substituted with one or more alkyl groups wherein the alkyl groups optionally carry additional substituents and the aryl groups are optionally substituted. Specific alkylaryl groups are alkyl-substituted phenyl groups such as methylphenyl.

The rings that may be formed from two or more of R1-R5 together can be optionally substituted cycloalkyl groups, optionally substituted cycloalkenyl groups or aromatic groups. The rings may contain 3, 4, 5, 6, 7 or more carbons. The rings may be heteroaromatic in which one, two or three carbons in the aromatic ring are replaced with N, O or S. The rings may be heteroalkyl or heteroalkenyl, in which one or more CH2 groups in the ring are replaced with O, N, NH, or S.

Optional substitution of any alkyl, alkenyl and aryl groups includes substitution with one or more of the following substituents: halogens, —CN, —COOR, —OR, —COR, —OCOOR, —CON(R) 2, —OCON(R)2, —N(R)2, —NO2, —SR, —SO2R, —SO2N(R)2 or —SOR groups. Optional substitution of alkyl groups includes substitution with one or more alkenyl groups, aryl groups or both, wherein the alkenyl groups or aryl groups are optionally substituted. Optional substitution of alkenyl groups includes substitution with one or more alkyl groups, aryl groups, or both, wherein the alkyl groups or aryl groups are optionally substituted. Optional substitution of aryl groups includes substitution of the aryl ring with one or more alkyl groups, alkenyl groups, or both, wherein the alkyl groups or alkenyl groups are optionally substituted.

Optional substituents for alkyl, alkenyl and aryl groups include among others:

-   —COOR where R is a hydrogen or an alkyl group or an aryl group and     more specifically where R is methyl, ethyl, propyl, butyl, or phenyl     groups all of which are optionally substituted; -   —COR where R is a hydrogen, or an alkyl group or an aryl groups and     more specifically where R is methyl, ethyl, propyl, butyl, or phenyl     groups all of which groups are optionally substituted; -   —CON(R)₂ where each R, independently of each other R, is a hydrogen     or an alkyl group or an aryl group and more specifically where R is     methyl, ethyl, propyl, butyl, or phenyl groups all of which groups     are optionally substituted; R and R can form a ring which may     contain one or more double bonds; -   —OCON(R)₂ where each R, independently of each other R, is a hydrogen     or an alkyl group or an aryl group and more specifically where R is     methyl, ethyl, propyl, butyl, or phenyl groups all of which groups     are optionally substituted; R and R can form a ring which may     contain one or more double bonds; -   —N(R)₂ where each R, independently of each other R, is a hydrogen,     or an alkyl group, acyl group or an aryl group and more specifically     where R is methyl, ethyl, propyl, butyl, or phenyl or acetyl groups     all of which are optionally substituted; or R and R can form a ring     which may contain one or more double bonds. -   —SR, —SO₂R, or —SOR where R is an alkyl group or an aryl groups and     more specifically where R is methyl, ethyl, propyl, butyl, phenyl     groups all of which are optionally substituted; for —SR, R can be     hydrogen; -   —OCOOR where R is an alkyl group or an aryl groups; -   —SO₂N(R)₂ where R is a hydrogen, an alkyl group, or an aryl group     and R and R can form a ring; -   —OR where R═H, alkyl, aryl, or acyl; for example, R can be an acyl     yielding —OCOR* where R* is a hydrogen or an alkyl group or an aryl     group and more specifically where R* is methyl, ethyl, propyl,     butyl, or phenyl groups all of which groups are optionally     substituted.

Specific substituted alkyl groups include haloalkyl groups, particularly trihalomethyl groups and specifically trifluoromethyl groups. Specific substituted aryl groups include mono-, di-, tri, tetra- and pentahalo-substituted phenyl groups; mono-, di-, tri-, tetra-, penta-, hexa-, and hepta-halo-substituted naphthalene groups; 3- or 4-halo-substituted phenyl groups, 3- or 4-alkyl-substituted phenyl groups, 3- or 4-alkoxy-substituted phenyl groups, 3- or 4-RCO-substituted phenyl, 5- or 6-halo-substituted naphthalene groups. More specifically, substituted aryl groups include acetylphenyl groups, particularly 4-acetylphenyl groups; fluorophenyl groups, particularly 3-fluorophenyl and 4-fluorophenyl groups; chlorophenyl groups, particularly 3-chlorophenyl and 4-chlorophenyl groups; methylphenyl groups, particularly 4-methylphenyl groups, and methoxyphenyl groups, particularly 4-methoxyphenyl groups.

Pharmaceutically acceptable salts comprise pharmaceutically-acceptable anions and/or cations. Pharmaceutically-acceptable cations include among others, alkali metal cations (e.g., Li+, Na+, K+), alkaline earth metal cations (e.g., Ca²⁺, Mg²⁺), non-toxic heavy metal cations and ammonium (NH₄ ⁺) and substituted ammonium (N(R′)₄ ⁺, where R′ is hydrogen, alkyl, or substituted alkyl, i.e., including, methyl, ethyl, or hydroxyethyl, specifically, trimethyl ammonium, triethyl ammonium, and triethanol ammonium cations). Pharmaceutically-acceptable anions include among other halides (e.g., Cl—, Br—), sulfate, acetates (e.g., acetate, trifluoroacetate), ascorbates, aspartates, benzoates, citrates, and lactate.

Compounds of the invention can have prodrug forms. Prodrugs of the compounds of the invention are useful in the methods of this invention. Any compound that will be converted in vivo to provide a biologically, pharmaceutically or therapeutically active form of a compound of the invention is a prodrug. Various examples and forms of prodrugs are well known in the art. Examples of prodrugs are found, inter alia, in Design of Prodrugs, edited by H. Bundgaard, (Elsevier, 1985), Methods in Enzymology, Vol. 42, at pp. 309-396, edited by K. Widder, et. al. (Academic Press, 1985); A Textbook of Drug Design and Development, edited by Krosgaard-Larsen and H. Bundgaard, Chapter 5, “Design and Application of Prodrugs,” by H. Bundgaard, at pp. 113-191, 1991); H. Bundgaard, Advanced Drug Delivery Reviews, Vol. 8, p. 1-38 (1992); H. Bundgaard, et al., Journal of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Vol. 77, p. 285 (1988); and Nogrady (1985) Medicinal Chemistry A Biochemical Approach, Oxford University Press, New York, pages 388-392).

The invention also provides compounds comprising the following structures. Such compounds are useful inhibitors of dehydrosqualene synthase activity (crtM inhibitors). The methods and compositions of the invention include enantiomers, pharmaceutically acceptable salts and derivatives thereof.

Structures of CrtM Inhibitors and Their Inhibitory Activity (¦ÌM)

Other crtM inhibitors includes those disclosed in EP Patent Nos. 595635 and 710665, U.S. Pat. Nos. 5,610,314 and 5,618,964, the disclosures of which are incorporated herein by reference. Other useful compounds include those having the following Chemical Abstract Registry numbers: 157127-07-6P; 157162-75-9P; 157238-96-5P; 157238-97-6P; 157238-98-7P; 157124-45-3P; 157124-46-4P; 157124-47-5P; 157124-48-6P; 157124-49-7P; 157124-50-0P; 157124-51-1P; 157124-52-2P; 157124-53-3P; 157124-54-4P; 157124-55-5P; 157124-56-6P; 157124-57-7P; 157124-58-8P; 157124-59-9P; 157124-60-2P; 157124-61-3P; 157124-62-4P; 157124-63-5P; 157124-64-6P; 157124-65-7P; 157124-66-8P; 157124-67-9P; 157124-68-0P; 157124-69-1P; 157124-70-4P; 157124-71-5P; 157124-72-6P; 157124-73-7P; 157124-74-8P; 157124-75-9P; 157124-76-0P; 157124-77-1P; 157124-78-2P; 157124-79-3P; 157124-80-6P; 157124-81-7P; 157124-82-8P; 157124-83-9P; 157124-84-0P; 157124-85-1P; 157124-86-2P; 157124-87-3P; 157124-88-4P; 157124-89-5P; 157124-90-8P; 157124-91-9P; 157124-92-0P; 157124-93-1P; 157124-94-2P; 157124-95-3P; 157124-96-4P; 157124-97-5P; 157124-98-6P; 157124-99-7P; 157125-00-3P; 157125-01-4P; 157125-02-5P; 157125-03-6P; 157125-04-7P; 157125-05-8P; 157125-06-9P; 157125-07-0P; 157125-08-1P; 157125-09-2P; 157125-10-5P; 157125-11-6P; 157125-12-7P; 157125-13-8P; 157125-14-9P; 157125-15-0P; 157125-16-1P; 157125-17-2P; 157125-18-3P; 157125-19-4P; 157125-20-7P; 157125-21-8P; 157125-22-9P; 157125-23-0P; 157125-24-1P; 157125-25-2P; 157125-26-3P; 157125-27-4P; 157125-28-5P; 157125-29-6P; 157125-30-9P; 157125-31-0P; 157125-32-1P; 157125-33-2P; 157125-34-3P; 157125-35-4P; 157125-36-5P; 157125-37-6P; 157125-38-7P; 157125-39-8P; 157125-40-1P; 157125-41-2P; 157125-42-3P; 157125-43-4P; 157125-44-5P; 157125-45-6P; 157125-46-7P; 157125-47-8P; 157125-48-9P; 157125-49-0P; 157125-50-3P; 157125-51-4P; 157125-52-5P; 157125-53-6P; 157125-54-7P; 157125-55-8P; 157125-56-9P; 157125-57-0P; 157125-58-1P; 157125-59-2P; 157125-60-5P; 157125-61-6P; 157125-62-7P; 157125-63-8P; 157125-64-9P; 157125-65-0P; 157125-66-1P; 157125-67-2P; 157125-68-3P; 157125-69-4P; 157125-70-7P; 157125-71-8P; 157125-72-9P; 157125-73-0P; 157125-74-1P; 157125-75-2P; 157125-76-3P; 157125-77-4P; 157125-78-5P; 157125-79-6P; 157125-80-9P; 157125-81-0P; 157125-82-1P; 157125-83-2P; 157125-84-3P; 157125-85-4P; 157125-86-5P; 157125-87-6P; 157125-88-7P; 157125-89-8P; 157125-90-1P; 157125-91-2P; 157125-92-3P; 157125-93-4P; 157125-94-5P; 157125-95-6P; 157125-96-7P; 157125-97-8P; 157125-98-9P; 157125-99-0P; 157126-00-6P; 157126-01-7P; 157126-02-8P; 157126-03-9P; 157126-04-0P; 157126-05-1P; 157126-06-2P; 157126-07-3P; 157126-08-4P; 157126-09-5P; 157126-10-8P; 157126-11-9P; 157126-12-0P; 157126-13-1P; 157126-14-2P; 157126-15-3P; 157126-16-4P; 157126-17-5P; 157126-19-7P; 157126-20-0P; 157126-21-1P; 157126-74-4P; 157162-74-8P; 178060-82-7P; 178060-83-8P; 78060-80-5P; 178060-81-6P; 157126-19-7P; 188525-87-3P; 188525-91-9P; 188525-94-2P; 188525-98-6P; 188526-02-5P; 188526-06-9P; 188525-87-3P; 188525-91-9P; 188525-94-2P; 188525-98-6P; 188526-02-5P; and 188526-06-9P (all of which are incorporated herein by reference).

In addition, phosphonosulfinic acid squalene synthase inhibitors, such as those disclosed in U.S. Pat. No. 5,447,922, and the following Chemical Abstract Registry numbers, can be used in the methods of the invention: 172152-68-0P; 172152-69-1P; 172152-70-4P; 172152-71-5P; 172152-72-6P; 172152-73-7P; 172152-74-8P; 172152-75-9P; 172152-76-0P; 172152-77-1P; 172152-78-2P; 172152-79-3P; 172152-80-6P; 172152-81-7P; 172152-82-8P; 172152-83-9P; 172152-84-0P; 172152-85-1P; and 172152-86-2P.

Referring to FIG. 1, additional enzymatic steps can be inhibited in addition to crtM to render a microbe susceptible to oxidative damage. For example, inhibitors of crtN can be used alone or in combination with a crtM. For example, diphenylamine and diphenylamine derivatives and analogs such as diclofenac sodium, mefenamic acid and lobenzarit disodium can be used to inhibit staphyloxanthin production. As yet another example, bisphosphonates are well known as inhibitors of farnesyl diphosphate synthase the previous enzyme in the production of staphyloxanthin. The use of inhibitors in combination with crtM inhibitors can act synergistically with CrtM inhibitors to render a microbe that produces a carotenoid susceptible to oxidative damage.

Pharmaceutically acceptable salts comprise pharmaceutically-acceptable anions and/or cations. Pharmaceutically-acceptable cations include among others, alkali metal cations (e.g., Li⁺, Na⁺, K⁺), alkaline earth metal cations (e.g., Ca²⁺, Mg²⁺), non-toxic heavy metal cations and ammonium (NH₄₊) and substituted ammonium (N(R′)₄ ⁺, where R′ is hydrogen, alkyl, or substituted alkyl, i.e., including, methyl, ethyl, or hydroxyethyl, specifically, trimethyl ammonium, triethyl ammonium, and triethanol ammonium cations). Pharmaceutically-acceptable anions include among other halides (e.g., Cl⁻, Br⁻), sulfate, acetates (e.g., acetate, trifluoroacetate), ascorbates, aspartates, benzoates, citrates, and lactate.

Compounds of the invention can have prodrug forms. Prodrugs of the compounds of the invention are useful in the methods of this invention. Any compound that will be converted in vivo to provide a biologically, pharmaceutically or therapeutically active form of a compound of the invention is a prodrug. Various examples and forms of prodrugs are well known in the art. Examples of prodrugs are found, inter alia, in Design of Prodrugs, edited by H. Bundgaard, (Elsevier, 1985), Methods in Enzymology, Vol. 42, at pp. 309-396, edited by K. Widder, et. al. (Academic Press, 1985); A Textbook of Drug Design and Development, edited by Krosgaard-Larsen and H. Bundgaard, Chapter 5, “Design and Application of Prodrugs,” by H. Bundgaard, at pp. 113-191, 1991); H. Bundgaard, Advanced Drug Delivery Reviews, Vol. 8, p. 1-38 (1992); H. Bundgaard, et al., Journal of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Vol. 77, p. 285 (1988); and Nogrady (1985) Medicinal Chemistry A Biochemical Approach, Oxford University Press, New York, pages 388-392).

The invention also provides a method of preventing or treating a bacterial infection, comprising administering to a subject inflicted with the infection an agent that inhibits the production and/or activity of a carotenoid in the bacteria. In one embodiment, the bacterial infection is a Staphylococcus infection. In another embodiment, the bacteria is a Staphylococcus sp. In yet a further embodiment, the bacteria is Staphylococcus aureus.

Within the context of the invention, modulating the expression of bacterial carotenoid biosynthetic pathways by the use of inhibitory nucleic acids provides a useful therapeutic method. For example, the invention identifies a number of genes encoding enzymes in the carotenoid biosynthetic pathway including crtM and crtN. Alternatively (or in addition to), it may be desirable to knockout the crtM/crtN genes leading to the synthesis of C₃₀ carotenoids. Common molecular biology techniques can be used to generate inhibitory nucleic acid molecules such as, for example, antisense molecules that can interact with a crtN and/or M nucleic acid produced by wild type bacteria (e.g., Staphylococcus sp.).

In another aspect, the carotenogenesis inhibitor comprises a oligonucleotide or polynucleotide (e.g., an antisense, ribozyme, or siRNA). For example, antisense technology is a method of down-regulating genes where the sequence of the target gene is known. A large number of carotenoid genes are known in the art including those of Staphylococcus sp. In this aspect, a nucleic acid segment from the desired gene (e.g., crtM and/or crtN) is cloned and operably linked to a promoter such that the anti-sense strand of RNA will be transcribed. This construct is then introduced into a target cell and the antisense strand of RNA is produced. Antisense RNA inhibits gene expression by preventing the accumulation of mRNA encoding the protein of interest. Thus, an antisense molecule against crtM and/or crtN will result in the reduction of synthesis of carotenoids a pathogenic microbe, thereby rendering the microbe susceptible to oxidative damage by phagocytes. A person skilled in the art will know that certain considerations are associated with the use of antisense technologies in order to reduce expression of particular genes. For example, the proper level of expression of antisense genes may require the use of different chimeric genes utilizing different regulatory elements known to the skilled artisan.

As used herein an isolated nucleic acid is substantially free of proteins, lipids, and other nucleic acids with which an in vivo-produced nucleic acids naturally associated. Typically, the nucleic acid is at least 70%, 80%, 90% or more pure by weight, and conventional methods for synthesizing nucleic acids in vitro can be used in lieu of in vivo methods. As used herein, “nucleic acid” or “polynucleotide” or “oligonucleotide” refers to a polymer of deoxyribonucleotides or ribonucleotides, in the form of a separate fragment or as a component of a larger genetic construct (e.g., by operably linking a promoter to a nucleic acid encoding, for example, an antisense molecule). Numerous genetic constructs (e.g., plasmids and other expression vectors) are known in the art and can be used to produce a desired nucleic acid of the disclosure in cell-free systems or prokaryotic or eukaryotic (e.g., yeast, insect, or mammalian) cells. The nucleic acids of the disclosure can readily be used in conventional molecular biology methods to produce the peptides of the disclosure.

Polynucleotides comprising an antisense nucleic acid, ribozyme, or siRNA can be inserted into an “expression vector.” The term “expression vector” refers to a genetic construct such as a plasmid, virus or other vehicle known in the art that can be engineered to contain, for example, an antisense molecule. The expression vector typically contains an origin of replication, and a promoter, as well as genes that allow phenotypic selection of the transformed cells. Various promoters, including inducible and constitutive promoters, can be utilized in the disclosure. Typically, the expression vector contains a replicon site and control sequences that are derived from a species compatible with the host/target cell.

Transformation or transfection of a host/target cell with a polynucleotide of the disclosure can be carried out using conventional techniques known to those skilled in the art. For example, where the host cell is E. coli, competent cells that are capable of DNA uptake can be prepared using the CaCl₂, MgCl₂ or RbCl methods known in the art. Alternatively, physical means, such as electroporation or microinjection can be used. Electroporation allows transfer of a polynucleotide into a cell by high voltage electric impulse. Additionally, polynucleotides can be introduced into host cells by protoplast fusion, using methods well known in the art. Suitable methods for transforming eukaryotic cells, such as electroporation and lipofection, also are known.

A host cell or target cell encompassed by of the disclosure are any cells in which the polynucleotides of the disclosure can be used to express an inhibitory nucleic acid molecule. The term also includes any progeny of a host/target cell. Host/target cells, which are useful, include bacterial cells, fungal cells (e.g., yeast cells), plant cells and animal cells. For example, host cells can be a higher eukaryotic cell, such as a mammalian cell, or a lower eukaryotic cell, such as a yeast cell, or the host cell can be a prokaryotic cell, such as a bacterial cell. Introduction of the construct into the host cell can be effected by calcium phosphate transfection, DEAE-Dextran mediated transfection, or electroporation (Davis, L., Dibner, M., Battey, I., Basic Methods in Molecular Biology (1986)). As representative examples of appropriate hosts, there may be mentioned: fungal cells, such as yeast; insect cells such as Drosophila S2 and Spodoptera Sf9; animal cells such as CHO, COS or Bowes melanoma; plant cells, and the like. The selection of an appropriate host is deemed to be within the scope of those skilled in the art from the teachings herein.

Host cells can be eukaryotic host cells (e.g., mammalian cells). In one aspect, the host cells are mammalian production cells adapted to grow in cell culture. Examples of such cells commonly used in the industry are CHO, VERO, BHK, HeLa, CV1 (including Cos; Cos-7), MDCK, 293, 3T3, C127, myeloma cell lines (especially murine), PC12 and W138 cells. Chinese hamster ovary (CHO) cells are widely used for the production of several complex recombinant proteins, e.g. cytokines, clotting factors, and antibodies (Brasel et al., Blood 88:2004-2012, 1996; Kaufman et al., J. Biol Chem 263: 6352-6362, 1988; McKinnon et al., J Mol Endocrinol 6:231-239, 1991; Wood et al., J. Immunol 145:3011-3016, 1990). The dihydrofolate reductase (DHFR)-deficient mutant cell lines (Urlaub et al., Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 77:4216-4220, 1980) are the CHO host cell lines commonly used because the efficient DHFR selectable and amplifiable gene expression system allows high level recombinant protein expression in these cells (Kaufman, Meth Enzymol 185:527-566, 1990). In addition, these cells are easy to manipulate as adherent or suspension cultures and exhibit relatively good genetic stability. CHO cells and recombinant proteins expressed in them have been extensively characterized and have been approved for use in clinical manufacturing by regulatory agencies.

The activity of such inhibitory agents (e.g., small molecules (2-diethylaminoethyl-2,2-diphenyl-valerate and inhibitory nucleic acids) can be determined using conventional methods known to those of skill in the art, such as the assays described herein (both in vitro and in vivo assays). For example, in one aspect of the invention, a method to screen an agent useful for treating an infection comprising contacting a microbe with an inhibitory agent the inhibits carotenoid production under conditions wherein the inhibitory agent and microbe can interact, contacting the microbe with an agent the peroxide, singlet oxygen or oxidative bursts and measuring the microbes survival in the presence and absence of the inhibitory agents, wherein a decrease in survival is indicative of an agent that promotes antimicrobial activity.

The disclosure also provides a method for inhibiting the growth of a bacterium by contacting the bacterium with an inhibiting effective amount of a carotenoid biosynthesis inhibitor (i.e., a carotenogenesis inhibitor). The term “contacting” refers to exposing the microbe (e.g., bacterium) to an agent so that the agent can inhibit, kill, or lyse microbe or render it susceptible to oxidative destruction. Contacting of an organism with an agent that inhibits carotenoid biosynthesis can occur in vitro, for example, by adding the agent to a bacterial culture, or contacting a bacterially contaminated surface with the agent.

Alternatively, contacting can occur in vivo, for example, by administering the agent to a subject afflicted with a bacterial infection or susceptible to infection. In vivo contacting includes both parenteral as well as topical. “Inhibiting” or “inhibiting effective amount” refers to the amount of agent that is sufficient to cause, for example, a bacteriostatic or bactericidal effect, reduce coloration of a particular bacterial cell type, or decrease the amount of a particular carotenoid produced by the bacteria. Bacteria that can be affected by the use of a carotenoid inhibitor include both gram-negative and gram-positive bacteria. For example, bacteria that can be affected include Staphylococcus aureus, Streptococcus pyogenes (group A), Streptococcus sp. (viridans group), Streptococcus agalactiae (group B), S. bovis, Streptococcus (anaerobic species), Streptococcus pneumoniae, and Enterococcus sp.; Gram-negative cocci such as, for example, Neisseria gonorrhoeae, Neisseria meningitidis, and Branhamella catarrhalis; Gram-positive bacilli such as Bacillus anthracis, Bacillus subtilis, P. acne Corynebacterium diphtheriae and Corynebacterium species which are diptheroids (aerobic and anerobic), Listeria monocytogenes, Clostridium tetani, Clostridium difficile, Escherichia coli, Enterobacter species, Proteus mirablis and other sp., Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Klebsiella pneumoniae, Salmonella, Shigella, Serratia, and Campylobacter jejuni. In particular, the methods and compositions of the invention are useful against any pathogen that synthesizes a carotenoid the confers protection against reactive oxygen species (e.g., species produced by NADPH oxidase). Infection with one or more of these bacteria can result in diseases such as bacteremia, pneumonia, meningitis, osteomyelitis, endocarditis, sinusitis, arthritis, urinary tract infections, tetanus, gangrene, colitis, acute gastroenteritis, impetigo, acne, acne posacue, wound infections, born infections, fascitis, bronchitis, and a variety of abscesses, nosocomial infections, and opportunistic infections. The method for inhibiting the growth of bacteria can also include contacting the bacterium with the peptide in combination with one or more antibiotics.

Fungal organisms may also be affected by the carotenoid inhibitors (e.g., Microsporum canis and other Microsporum sp.; and Trichophyton sp. such as T. rubrum, and T. mentagrophytes), yeasts (e.g., Candida albicans, C. Tropicalis, or other Candida species), Saccharomyces cerevisiae, Torulopsis glabrata, Epidermophyton floccosum, Malassezia furfur (Pityropsporon orbiculare, or P. ovale), Cryptococcus neoformans, Aspergillus fumigatus, Aspergillus nidulans, and other Aspergillus sp., Zygomycetes (e.g., Rhizopus, Mucor), Paracoccidioides brasiliensis, Blastomyces dermatitides, Histoplasma capsulatum, Coccidioides immitis, and Sporothrix schenckii.

A carotenoid biosynthesis inhibitor (e.g., crtM inhibitor, crtN inhibitor and combinations thereof) can be administered to any host, including a human or non-human animal, in an amount effective to inhibit the production of carotenoids that confer, for example, resistance to oxidative attack. In one aspect, the administration results in the inhibition of growth of a bacterium, virus, and/or fungus. Thus, the methods and compositions are useful as antimicrobial agents, antiviral agents, and/or antifungal agents.

Any of a variety of art-known methods can be used to administer a carotenoid inhibitory agent either alone or in combination with other antibiotic agents. For example, administration can be parenterally by injection or by gradual infusion over time. The agent(s) can be administered intravenously, intraperitoneally, intramuscularly, subcutaneously, intracavity, by inhalation, or transdermally.

In another aspect, a carotenoid biosynthesis inhibitor can be formulated either alone or in combination with other antibiotics/antifungals for topical administration (e.g., as a lotion, cream, spray, gel, or ointment). Such topical formulations are useful in treating or inhibiting microbial, fungal, and/or viral presence or infections on the eye, skin, and mucous membranes (e.g., mouth, vagina). Examples of formulations in the market place include topical lotions, creams, soaps, wipes, and the like. It may be formulated into liposomes to reduce toxicity or increase bioavailability. Other methods for delivery include oral methods that entail encapsulation of the in microspheres or proteinoids, aerosol delivery (e.g., to the lungs), or transdermal delivery (e.g., by iontophoresis or transdermal electroporation). Other methods of administration will be known to those skilled in the art.

Preparations for parenteral administration of a composition comprising a carotenoid inhibitor include sterile aqueous or non-aqueous solutions, suspensions, and emulsions. Examples of non-aqueous solvents are propylene glycol, polyethylene glycol, vegetable oils (e.g., olive oil), and injectable organic esters such as ethyl oleate. Examples of aqueous carriers include water, saline, and buffered media, alcoholic/aqueous solutions, and emulsions or suspensions. Examples of parenteral vehicles include sodium chloride solution, Ringer's dextrose, dextrose and sodium chloride, lactated Ringer's, and fixed oils. Intravenous vehicles include fluid and nutrient replenishers, electrolyte replenishers (such as those based on Ringer's dextrose), and the like. Preservatives and other additives such as, other antimicrobial, anti-oxidants, cheating agents, inert gases and the like also can be included.

The disclosure provides a method for inhibiting a bacterial, viral and/or fungal-associated disorder by contacting or administering a therapeutically effective amount of a carotenoid biosynthesis inhibitor (e.g., a crtM and/or crtN inhibitor) either alone or in combination with other antimicrobial agents to a subject who has, or is at risk of having, such a disorder. The term “inhibiting” means preventing or ameliorating a sign or symptoms of a disorder (e.g., a rash, sore, and the like). Examples of disease signs that can be ameliorated include an increase in a subject's blood level of TNF, fever, hypotension, neutropenia, leukopenia, thrombocytopenia, disseminated intravascular coagulation, adult respiratory distress syndrome, shock, and organ failure. Examples of subjects who can be treated in the disclosure include those at risk for, or those suffering from, a toxemia, such as endotoxemia resulting from a gram-negative or gram-positive bacterial infection. Other examples include subjects having a dermatitis as well as those having skin infections or injuries subject to infection with gram-positive or gram-negative bacteria, a virus, or a fungus. Examples of candidate subjects include those suffering from infection by E. coli, Neisseria meningitides, staphylococci, or pneumococci. Other subjects include those suffering from gunshot wounds, renal or hepatic failure, trauma, burns, immunocompromising infections (e.g., HIV infections), hematopoietic neoplasias, multiple myeloma, Castleman's disease or cardiac myxoma. Those skilled in the art of medicine can readily employ conventional criteria to identify appropriate subjects for treatment in accordance with the disclosure.

A therapeutically effective amount can be measured as the amount sufficient to decrease a subject's symptoms (e.g., dermatitis or rash by measuring the frequency of severity of skin sores). Typically, the subject is treated with an amount of a therapeutic composition of the invention sufficient to reduce a symptom of a disease or disorder by at least 50%, 90% or 100%. Generally, the optimal dosage will depend upon the disorder and factors such as the weight of the subject, the type of bacteria, virus or fungal infection, the weight, sex, and degree of symptoms. Nonetheless, suitable dosages can readily be determined by one skilled in the art. Typically, a suitable dosage is 0.5 to 40 mg/kg body weight, e.g., 1 to 8 mg/kg body weight.

As mentioned previously, the compositions and methods of the invention can include the use of additional (e.g., in addition to a carotenoid biosynthesis inhibitor) therapeutic agents (e.g., an inhibitor of TNF, an antibiotic, and the like). The carotenoid biosynthesis inhibitor, other therapeutic agent(s), and/or antibiotic(s) can be administered, simultaneously, but may also be administered sequentially. Suitable antibiotics include aminoglycosides (e.g., gentamicin), beta-lactams (e.g., penicillins and cephalosporins), quinolones (e.g., ciprofloxacin), and novobiocin. Generally, the antibiotic is administered in a bactericidal, antiviral and/or antifungal amount. Their effects can also be augmented by co-administration with an inhibitor of flavohemoglobin, (Helmick et al., Imidazole antibiotics inhibit the nitric oxide dioxygenase function of microbial flavohemoglobin. Antimicrob Agents Chemother, 2005,49(5):1837-43, and Sud et al., Action of antifungal imidazoles on Staphylococcus aureus, Antimicrob Agents Chemother, 1982, 22(3):470-4), increasing the efficacy of NO-based S. aureus killing by macrophages, and optionally triple combination therapies comprising one squalene synthase inhibitor, one flavohemoglobin (nitric oxide dioxygenase) inhibitor such as an azole (miconazole, econazole, clortrimazole, and ketoconazole) and one antibiotic as described above, may be applied to a patient in need of therapy.

The methods and compositions of the invention utilizing carotenoid biosynthesis inhibitors are useful as a broad-spectrum antimicrobials suitable for tackling the growing problem of antibiotic-resistant bacteria strains, and for treating and/or preventing outbreaks of infectious diseases, including diseases caused by bioterrorism agents like anthrax, plague, cholera, gastroenteritis, multidrug-resistant tuberculosis (MDR TB).

A pharmaceutical composition comprising a carotenogenesis inhibitor according to the disclosure can be in a form suitable for administration to a subject using carriers, excipients, and additives or auxiliaries. Frequently used carriers or auxiliaries include magnesium carbonate, titanium dioxide, lactose, mannitol and other sugars, talc, milk protein, gelatin, starch, vitamins, cellulose and its derivatives, animal and vegetable oils, polyethylene glycols and solvents, such as sterile water, alcohols, glycerol, and polyhydric alcohols. Intravenous vehicles include fluid and nutrient replenishers. Preservatives include antimicrobial, chelating agents, and inert gases. Other pharmaceutically acceptable carriers include aqueous solutions, non-toxic excipients, including salts, preservatives, buffers and the like, as described, for instance, in Remington's Pharmaceutical Sciences, 15th ed., Easton: Mack Publishing Co., 1405-1412, 1461-1487 (1975), and The National Formulary XIV., 14th ed., Washington: American Pharmaceutical Association (1975), the contents of which are hereby incorporated by reference. The pH and exact concentration of the various components of the pharmaceutical composition are adjusted according to routine skills in the art. See Goodman and Gilman's, The Pharmacological Basis for Therapeutics (7th ed.).

The pharmaceutical compositions according to the disclosure may be administered locally or systemically. A “therapeutically effective dose” is the quantity of an agent according to the disclosure necessary to prevent, to cure, or at least partially arrest the symptoms of a bacterial infection. Amounts effective for this use will, of course, depend on the severity of the disease and the weight and general state of the subject. Typically, dosages used in vitro may provide useful guidance in the amounts useful for in situ administration of the pharmaceutical composition, and animal models may be used to determine effective dosages for treatment of infections. Various considerations are described, e.g., in Langer, Science, 249: 1527, (1990); Gilman et al. (eds.) (1990), each of which is herein incorporated by reference.

As used herein, “administering a therapeutically effective amount” is intended to include methods of giving or applying a pharmaceutical composition of the disclosure to a subject that allow the composition to perform its intended therapeutic function. The therapeutically effective amounts will vary according to factors, such as the degree of infection in a subject, the age, sex, and weight of the individual. Dosage regima can be adjusted to provide the optimum therapeutic response. For example, several divided doses can be administered daily or the dose can be proportionally reduced as indicated by the exigencies of the therapeutic situation.

The pharmaceutical composition can be administered in a convenient manner, such as by injection (subcutaneous, intravenous, etc.), oral administration, inhalation, transdermal application, or rectal administration. Depending on the route of administration, the pharmaceutical composition can be coated with a material to protect the pharmaceutical composition from the action of enzymes, acids, and other natural conditions that may inactivate the pharmaceutical composition. The pharmaceutical composition can also be administered parenterally or intraperitoneally. Dispersions can also be prepared in glycerol, liquid polyethylene glycols, and mixtures thereof, and in oils. Under ordinary conditions of storage and use, these preparations may contain a preservative to prevent the growth of microorganisms.

Pharmaceutical compositions suitable for injectable use include sterile aqueous solutions (where water soluble) or dispersions and sterile powders for the extemporaneous preparation of sterile injectable solutions or dispersions. In all cases, the composition should be sterile and should be fluid to the extent that easy syringability exists. The carrier can be a solvent or dispersion medium containing, for example, water, ethanol, polyol (for example, glycerol, propylene glycol, and liquid polyetheylene glycol, and the like), suitable mixtures thereof, and vegetable oils. The proper fluidity can be maintained, for example, by the use of a coating, such as lecithin, by the maintenance of the required particle size, in the case of dispersion, and by the use of surfactants. Prevention of the action of microorganisms can be achieved by various antibacterial and antifungal agents, for example, parabens, chlorobutanol, phenol, ascorbic acid, thimerosal, and the like. In many cases, it will be typical to include isotonic agents, for example, sugars, polyalcohols, such as mannitol, sorbitol, or sodium chloride in the composition. Prolonged absorption of the injectable compositions can be brought about by including in the composition an agent that delays absorption, for example, aluminum monostearate and gelatin.

Sterile injectable solutions can be prepared by incorporating the pharmaceutical composition in the required amount in an appropriate solvent with one or a combination of ingredients enumerated above, as required, followed by filtered sterilization. Generally, dispersions are prepared by incorporating the pharmaceutical composition into a sterile vehicle that contains a basic dispersion medium and the required other ingredients from those enumerated above.

The pharmaceutical composition can be orally administered, for example, with an inert diluent or an assimilable edible carrier. The pharmaceutical composition and other ingredients can also be enclosed in a hard or soft-shell gelatin capsule, compressed into tablets, or incorporated directly into the individual's diet. For oral therapeutic administration, the pharmaceutical composition can be incorporated with excipients and used in the form of ingestible tablets, buccal tablets, troches, capsules, elixirs, suspensions, syrups, wafers, and the like. Such compositions and preparations should contain at least 1% by weight of active compound. The percentage of the compositions and preparations can, of course, be varied and can conveniently be between about 5% to about 80% of the weight of the unit.

The tablets, troches, pills, capsules, and the like can also contain the following: a binder, such as gum gragacanth, acacia, corn starch, or gelatin; excipients such as dicalcium phosphate; a disintegrating agent, such as corn starch, potato starch, alginic acid, and the like; a lubricant, such as magnesium stearate; and a sweetening agent, such as sucrose, lactose or saccharin, or a flavoring agent such as peppermint, oil of wintergreen, or cherry flavoring. When the dosage unit form is a capsule, it can contain, in addition to materials of the above type, a liquid carrier. Various other materials can be present as coatings or to otherwise modify the physical form of the dosage unit. For instance, tablets, pills, or capsules can be coated with shellac, sugar, or both. A syrup or elixir can contain the agent, sucrose as a sweetening agent, methyl and propylparabens as preservatives, a dye, and flavoring, such as cherry or orange flavor. Of course, any material used in preparing any dosage unit form should be pharmaceutically pure and substantially non-toxic/biocompatible in the amounts employed. In addition, the pharmaceutical composition can be incorporated into sustained-release preparations and formulations.

Thus, a “pharmaceutically acceptable carrier” is intended to include solvents, dispersion media, coatings, antibacterial and antifungal agents, isotonic and absorption delaying agents, and the like. The use of such media and agents for pharmaceutically active substances is well known in the art. Except insofar as any conventional media or agent is incompatible with the pharmaceutical composition, use thereof in the therapeutic compositions and methods of treatment is contemplated. Supplementary active compounds can also be incorporated into the compositions.

It is especially advantageous to formulate parenteral compositions in dosage unit form for ease of administration and uniformity of dosage. “Dosage unit form” as used herein, refers to physically discrete units suited as unitary dosages for the individual to be treated; each unit containing a predetermined quantity of pharmaceutical composition is calculated to produce the desired therapeutic effect in association with the required pharmaceutical carrier. The specification for the dosage unit forms of the disclosure are related to the characteristics of the pharmaceutical composition and the particular therapeutic effect to be achieve.

The principal pharmaceutical composition is compounded for convenient and effective administration in effective amounts with a suitable pharmaceutically acceptable carrier in an acceptable dosage unit. In the case of compositions containing supplementary active ingredients, the dosages are determined by reference to the usual dose and manner of administration of the said ingredients.

An agent useful to inhibit carotenogenesis in a bacterial organism (e.g., Staphylococcus sp.) may be used in combination with commonly used antibiotics and/or antimicrobials. Accordingly, a pharmaceutical composition of the invention can comprise a carotenogenesis inhibitor and one or more additional antimicrobials or antibiotics.

The following example(s) are provided in illustration of the invention and should not be construed in any way as constituting a limitation thereof.

Examples

The biosynthetic pathway for S. aureus carotenoids includes the essential functions of genes crtM and crtN, encoding dehydrosqualene synthase and dehydrosqualene desaturase, respectively. To probe the biological activities of the S. aureus pigment, an isogenic mutant of a golden-colored human clinical isolate by allelic replacement of crtM was generated. The ΔCrtM mutant was nonpigmented and lacked the characteristic triple-peak spectral profile of wild-type carotenoid at 440, 462 and 491 nM wavelengths. No differences in growth rate, stationary phase density, surface charge, buoyancy or hydrophobicity were observed between WT and ΔCrtM S. aureus. S. aureus crtM and crtN together are sufficient for production of 4,4′-diaponeurosporene. To facilitate gain of function analyses, both genes were expressed in the nonpigmented Streptococcus pyogenes, a human pathogen associated with a disease spectrum similar to that of S. aureus. When transformed with a pCrtMN plasmid, S. pyogenes gained yellow pigmentation with the spectral characteristics of a carotenoid. Complementation of the S. aureus ΔCrtM mutant with the same pCrtMN vector also partially restored pigmentation.

The isoprene biosynthesis pathway is an important target for the development of drugs effective against infectious diseases, (U.S. Patent application 20030032578), as well as well as in the development of herbicides which interfere with orange pigment (carotenoid) formation (U.S. Pat. No. 5,756,423).

Useful inhibitors of carotenogenesis production include various small molecule inhibitors. For example, a small molecule of formula I, provides a generic formula of a molecule useful for inhibiting carotenogenesis production.

The invention provides compounds and methods of using such compounds to treat microbial infections. The compounds of the invention are represented by formula I or II:

wherein:

-   m is 0, 1, 2 or 3; -   n is an integer between 1 and 10 inclusive; -   each D and E are each independently selected from the group     consisting of: H, aryl, substituted aryl, alkyl, substituted alkyl,     carboxyl, aminocarbonyl, alkylsulfonylaminocarboxyl, alkoxycarbonyl,     and halo; -   M¹, M², and M³ are each independently selected from the group     consisting of metals, ammonium and esters thereof; -   R¹ is selected from the group consisting of: H, aryl, substituted     aryl, alkyl, substituted alkyl, carboxyl, aminocarbonyl,     alkylsulfonylaminocarboxyl, alkoxycarbonyl, and halo, or R¹ and R²,     together with the carbons to which they are bound, can be joined to     form a 4 to 7 membered ring or a substituted 4 to 7 membered ring; -   R² is selected from the group consisting of: H, aryl, substituted     aryl, alkyl, substituted alkyl, carboxyl, aminocarbonyl,     alkylsulfonylaminocarboxyl, alkoxycarbonyl, and halo, or R² and R¹,     together with the carbons to which they are bound, can be joined to     form a 4 to 7 membered ring or a substituted 4 to 7 membered ring,     or R² and R³, together with the carbons to which they are bound, can     be joined to form a 4 to 7 membered ring or a substituted 4 to 7     membered ring; -   R³ is selected from the group consisting of: H, aryl, substituted     aryl, alkyl, substituted alkyl, carboxyl, aminocarbonyl,     alkylsulfonylaminocarboxyl, alkoxycarbonyl, and halo, or R³ and R²,     together with the carbons to which they are bound, can be joined to     form a 4 to 7 membered ring or a substituted 4 to 7 membered ring,     or R³ and R⁴, together with the carbons to which they are bound, can     be joined to form a 4 to 7 membered ring or a substituted 4 to 7     membered ring; -   R⁴ is selected from the group consisting of: H, aryl, substituted     aryl, alkyl, substituted alkyl, carboxyl, aminocarbonyl,     alkylsulfonylaminocarboxyl, alkoxycarbonyl, and halo, or R⁴ and R³,     together with the carbons to which they are bound, can be joined to     form a 4 to 7 membered ring or a substituted 4 to 7 membered ring; -   R⁵, R⁶, R⁷, R⁸, and R⁹ are each independently selected from the     group consisting of: H, aryl, substituted aryl, alkyl, substituted     alkyl, carboxyl, aminocarbonyl, alkylsulfonylaminocarboxyl,     alkoxycarbonyl, and halo; -   L¹ is —S—, —SO—, —SO₂—, —O—, —N(R¹⁹)—, or —C(R²⁰)(R²¹)—; wherein     R¹⁹, R²⁰ and R²¹ are each independently selected from the group     consisting of: H, aryl, substituted aryl, alkyl, substituted alkyl,     carboxyl, aminocarbonyl, alkylsulfonylaminocarboxyl, alkoxycarbonyl,     and halo;

wherein:

-   x is 0, 1, 2, or 3; -   y is an integer between 1 and 10 inclusive; -   each G and J are independently selected from the group consisting     of: H, aryl, substituted aryl, alkyl, substituted alkyl, carboxyl,     aminocarbonyl, alkylsulfonylaminocarboxyl, alkoxycarbonyl, and halo; -   M⁴, M⁵, and M⁶ are each independently selected from the group     consisting of metals, ammonium and esters thereof; -   R¹⁰ is selected from the group consisting of: H, aryl, substituted     aryl, alkyl, substituted alkyl, carboxyl, aminocarbonyl,     alkylsulfonylaminocarboxyl, alkoxycarbonyl, and halo, or R¹⁰ and     R¹¹, together with the carbons to which they are bound, can be     joined to form a 4 to 7 membered ring or a substituted 4 to 7     membered ring; -   R¹¹ is selected from the group consisting of: H, aryl, substituted     aryl, alkyl, substituted alkyl, carboxyl, aminocarbonyl,     alkylsulfonylaminocarboxyl, alkoxycarbonyl, and halo, or R¹¹ and     R¹⁰, together with the carbons to which they are bound, can be     joined to form a 4 to 7 membered ring or a substituted 4 to 7     membered ring, or R¹¹ and R¹², together with the carbons to which     they are bound, can be joined to form a 4 to 7 membered ring or a     substituted 4 to 7 membered ring; -   R¹² is selected from the group consisting of: H, aryl, substituted     aryl, alkyl, substituted alkyl, carboxyl, aminocarbonyl,     alkylsulfonylaminocarboxyl, alkoxycarbonyl, and halo, or R¹² and     R¹¹, together with the carbons to which they are bound, can be     joined to form a 4 to 7 membered ring or a substituted 4 to 7     membered ring, or R¹² and R¹³, together with the carbons to which     they are bound, can be joined to form a 4 to 7 membered ring or a     substituted 4 to 7 membered ring; -   R¹³ is selected from the group consisting of: H, aryl, substituted     aryl, alkyl, substituted alkyl, carboxyl, aminocarbonyl,     alkylsulfonylaminocarboxyl, alkoxycarbonyl, and halo, or R¹³ and     R¹², together with the carbons to which they are bound, can be     joined to form a 4 to 7 membered ring or a substituted 4 to 7     membered ring; -   R¹⁴, R¹⁵, R¹⁶, R¹⁷, and R¹⁸ are each independently selected from the     group consisting of: H, aryl, substituted aryl, alkyl, substituted     alkyl, carboxyl, aminocarbonyl, alkylsulfonylaminocarboxyl,     alkoxycarbonyl, and halo; -   L² is —S—, —SO—, —SO₂, —O—, —N(R²²)—, or —C(R²³)(R²⁴)—; wherein R²²     R²³ and R²⁴ are each independently selected from the group     consisting of: H, aryl, substituted aryl, alkyl, substituted alkyl,     carboxyl, aminocarbonyl, alkylsulfonylaminocarboxyl, alkoxycarbonyl,     and halo.     Structures of CrtM Inhibitors and Their Inhibitory Activity (¦ÌM)

Many infections are caused by bacteria containing pigments. For example, Staphylococcus aureus contains a bright orange pigment, staphyloxanthin. This pigment is thought to protect bacteria from attack by reactive oxygen species of the host immune system. The pigment is produced by a series of enzymes including dehydrosqualene synthase, which condenses two molecules of farnesyldiphosphate to form dehydrosqualene. These pigments are not produced by humans and other animals since the dehydrosqualene synthase gene is absent in animals. However, humans and other animals do contain a squalene synthase gene. Remarkably, it has been determined that inhibitors of the human squalene synthase enzyme block pigment (staphyloxanthin) formation in S. aureus, leading to enhanced killing by immune system cells, both in vitro and in vivo.

The compound of Formula III was prepared as described in Magnin et al., α-Phosphonosulfonic acids: Potent and selective inhibitors of squalene synthase, J. Med. Chem. 39 (1996) 657-660, and tested in S. aureus growth inhibition and in pigment formation. The compound of Formula III had no detectable effect on cell growth but had a potent effect on pigment formation, Table 1/FIG. 1:

TABLE 1 S. aureus growth and pigmentation after 2 days at 37° C. with shaking, with an IC₅₀ (concentration for 50% pigment formation) of ~2 μM. Formula (μM)

Growth Pigment 0 +++ +++ 1 +++ + 10 +++ − 100 +++ − 1000 +++ −

Bacteria, mice, human CGD patient and chemical reagents: Wild-type S. aureus strain (Pig1), isolated from the skin of a child with atopic dermatitis. Streptococcus pyogenes strain 5448 is a well-characterized serotype M1T1 clinical isolate. CD1 and C57B1/6 mice were purchased from Charles River. The gp91^(Phox−/−) mice were bred at the Veteran's Administration Medical Center, San Diego and maintained on trimethoprim/sulfamethoxazole prophylaxis until 3 d prior to experiments. S. aureus and S. pyogenes were propagated in Todd-Hewitt broth (THB) or on THB agar (Difco, Detroit, Mich.). Unless otherwise indicated, all experiments were performed with bacteria derived from S. aureus 36-48 h stationary phase cultures or S. pyogenes 24 h stationary phase cultures, a point when pigmentation phenotypes were readily apparent.

Human CGD patient: The patient was an 18 y.o. female with a gp47^(phox) deficiency (homozygous ΔGT deletion in exon 2). At the time of study she was in good health and her only medication was interferon-γ (50 mcg/m²) administered three times weekly by subcutaneous injection.

Generation of the carotenoid-deficient S. aureus mutant, ΔCrtM. Precise, in-frame allelic replacement of the S. aureus crtM gene with a chloramphenicol acetyltransferase (cat) cassette was performed using PCR-based methods as described for S. pyogenes or Streptococcus agalactiae, with minor modifications. Primers were designed based on the published S. aureus crtMN sequence⁶ cross-referenced to genome S. aureus strain N315²¹. PCR was used to amplify ˜500 bp upstream of crtM with primers crtMupF 5′-TTAGGAAGTGCATATACTTCAC-3′ (SEQ ID NO:1) and crtMstartR 5′-GGTGGTATATCCAGTGATTTTTTTCTCCATACTAGTCCTCCTATATTGAAATG-3′ (SEQ ID NO:2), along with approximately 500 bp of sequence immediately downstream of crtM with primers crtMendF 5′-TACTGCGATGAGTGGCAGGGCGGGGCGTAACAAAGTATTTAGTATTGAAGC-3′ (SEQ ID NO:3) and crtMdownR 5′-GGCACCGTTATACGATCATCGT-3′ (SEQ ID NO:4). The crtMstartR and crtMendF primers were constructed with 25 bp 5′ extensions corresponding to the 5′ and 3′ ends of the cat gene, respectively. The upstream and downstream PCR products were then combined with a 650 bp amplicon of the complete cat gene (from pACYC184) as templates in a second round of PCR using primers crtMupF and crtMdownR. The resultant PCR amplicon, containing an in-frame substitution of crtM with cat, was subcloned into temperature-sensitive vector pHY304 to create the knockout plasmid. This vector was transformed initially into permissive S. aureus strain RN4220 (provided by Dr. Paul Sullam) and then into S. aureus strain Pig1 by electroporation. Transformants were grown at 30° C., shifted to the nonpermissive temperature for plasmid replication (40° C.), and differential antibiotic selection and pigment phenotype were used to identify candidate mutants. Allelic replacement of the crtM allele in was confirmed unambigously by PCR reactions documenting targeted insertion of cat and absence of crtM in chromosomal DNA isolated from the final mutant ΔCrtM.

Complementation and heterologous expression studies. Primers CrtF 5′-CAGTCTAGAAATGGCATTTCAATATAGGAG-3′ (SEQ ID NO:5) and CrtR 5′-ATCGAGATCTCTCACATCTTTCTCTTAGAC-3′ (SEQ ID NO:6) were used to amplify the contiguous CrtM and CrtN genes from the chromosome of WT S. aureus strain Pig1. The fragment was directionally cloned into the shuttle expression vector pDCerm¹⁹ and the recombinant plasmid (pCrtMN) used to transform by electroporation the S. aureus ΔCrtM mutant and S. pyogenes strain 5448.

Spectral profile of the S. aureus carotenoid. Stationary phase (48 h) cultures of WT S. aureus Pig1 and its isogenic ΔCrtM mutant were subjected to methanol extraction. The absorbance profile of the extracts was measured with a MBA 2000 spectrophotometer (Perkin Elmer).

Oxidant susceptibility assays. Tests for susceptibility to oxidants were performed either in PBS (S. aureus) or THB (S. pyogenes). Hydrogen peroxide (H₂O₂) was added to 1.5% final concentration, 2×0⁹ bacteria incubated at 37° C. for 1 h, then 1,000 U/ml of catalase (Sigma) added to quench residual H₂O₂. Dilutions were plated on THA for enumeration of surviving cfu. For the singlet oxygen assay, 10⁸ S. aureus or 4×10⁸ S. pyogenes were incubated at 37° C. in individual wells of a 24-well culture plate in the presence or absence of 1-6 μg/ml methylene blue and situated exactly 10 cm from a 100-watt light source. Bacterial viability was assessed after 1-3 h by plating dilutions on THA. Control plates handled identically but wrapped in foil or exposed to light in the absence of methylene blue did not show evidence of bacterial killing.

Whole blood killing assays. Bacteria were washed twice in PBS, diluted to an inoculum of 10⁴ cfu in 25 μl PBS, and mixed with 75 μl of freshly drawn human or mouse blood in heparinized tubes. The tubes were incubated at 37° C. for 4 h with agitation, at which time dilutions were plated on THA for enumeration of surviving cfu.

Neutrophil intracellular survival assay. Neutrophils were purified from healthy human volunteers using a Histopaque gradient (Sigma) per manufacturer's directions. Intracellular survival assays were performed as follows. Bacterial cultures were washed twice in PBS, diluted to a concentration of 4.5×10⁶ cfu in 100 μl RPMI+10% FCS, and mixed with 3×10⁵ neutrophils in the same media (multiplicity of infection, MOI=15:1), centrifuged at 700×g for 5 min, then incubated at 37° C. in a 5% CO₂ incubator. Gentamicin (Gibco) (final concentration 400 μg/ml for S. aureus and 100 μg/ml for S. pyogenes) was added after 10 min to kill extracellular bacteria. At specified time points, the contents of sample wells were withdrawn, centrifuged to pellet the neutrophils, and washed to remove the antibiotic medium. Neutrophils were then lysed in 0.02% triton-X, and cfu calculated by plating on THA. Several assays were repeated with addition of a step involving preincubation of the bacterial inoculum with 10% autologous human serum for 15 min on ice.

Murine model of subcutaneous infection. Ten to 16 week old CD-1 or gp91^(Phox−/−) mice were injected subcutaneously in one flank (chosen randomly) with the bacterial test strain, and simultaneously in the opposite flank with a different strain for direct comparison. Bacterial cultures were washed, diluted and resuspended in PBS mixed 1:1 with sterile Cytodex beads (Amersham) at the specified inoculum, following an established protocol for generating localized S. aureus and S. pyogenes subcutaneous infection. Lesion size, as assessed by the maximal length×width of the developing ulcers, was recorded daily. Cumulative lesion size represents the total sum of lesion sizes from all animals in each treatment group on a given day. At day 8 (S. aureus) or day 5 (S. pyogenes), animals were euthanized, skin lesions excised, homogenized in PBS, and plated on THA for quantitative culture.

Statistics. The significance of experimental differences in oxidant sensitivity, blood killing, and neutrophil survival were evaluated by unpaired Students t test. Results of the mouse in vivo challenge studies were evaluated by paired Student's t test.

Assurances. All animal experiments were approved by the UCSD Committee on the Use and Care of Animals and performed using accepted veterinary standards. Experimentations using human blood were approved by the Dual Tracked UCSD Human Research Protection Program/CHSD IRB. Prior informed consents were obtained from the human subjects.

Assays for buoyancy, surface charge, and hydrophobicity. To measure buoyancy, sequential overlay gradients of 1 ml each 70%, 60% and 50% Percoll were prepared in 5 ml glass test tubes. One ml of overnight bacterial culture was placed on top of the Percoll layers, the tubes centrifuged in a swinging bucket centrifuge for 8 min at 500×g, and the migration of bacteria to various Percoll interphases recorded. To measure surface charge, bacteria were harvested by centrifugation and washed in morpholinepropanesulfonic acid (MOPS) buffer (20 mM, pH=7.0). One ml of culture was resuspended in 0.5 ml MOPS and the OD600 measured. Bacteria cells were incubated at room temperature or 15 min with cytochrome C (Sigma, St. Louis, Mo.) at a final concentration of 0.5 mg/ml. Samples were centrifuged (13,000×g for 5 min) and the amount of cytochrome C remaining in the supernatant quantitated at 530 nm. Cytochrome C values were adjusted to reflect binding per culture OD₆₀₀=1.0. To measure hydrophobicity, 0.5 ml of S. aureus culture was washed and resuspended in 1.0 ml PBS, 300 μl of n-hexadecane layered on top of the cell suspension, and tubes vortexed for 60 sec. Samples were incubated at RT for 30 min to allow for phase separation. The aqueous phase was removed and the ratio of the OD₆₀₀ of the aqueous phase versus the OD₆₀₀ of the culture in PBS determined.

Protease and cathelicidin sensitivity assays. Human neutrophil elastase, and cathepsin G were purchased from Calbiochem. The antimicrobial peptide mCRAMP was synthesized at the Louisiana State University Protein Facility (Martha Juban, Director). S. aureus cultures were diluted (1:2,000) in 10 mM phosphate buffer (pH 7.2)+0.5% LB to ˜1×10⁶ CFU/ml. Ninety μl of this bacterial suspension was added to replicate wells in a 96-well plate. Dilutions of the cathepsin G (20 and 100 mU/ml), human neutrophil elastase (12.5 and 50 μg/ml), and murine CRAMP (0.4-3 μM) were prepared in 10 mM phosphate buffer and added to wells in 10 μl volume; 10 mM phosphate buffer alone was used as a negative control. After 2 h incubation at 37° C., 25 μl aliquots of each well were serially diluted in PBS and plated on THB. Each experiment was performed in duplicate and repeated.

Phagocytotic uptake assay. S. aureus were labeled with SYTOR9, a component of BacLight™ kit (Invitrogen, Carlsbad, Calif.), for 15 min at RT per manufacturer's guidelines. Labeled bacteria were washed×3 times to remove excess dye, then preopsonized in 10% autologous human serum for 10 min on ice. Bacteria were added to 3×106 purified human neutrophils at MOI=15, incubated at 37° C. for 5 min, then centrifuged at 500×g for 6 min to pellet neutrophils. The supernatant was discarded and the cell pellet resuspended in 15 ml of 0.1 mg/ml ethidium bromide in PBS to quench fluorescence of extracellular bacteria. The percentage of neutrophils with intracellular bacteria was enumerated by direct visualization under fluorescent microscopy. Experiments were performed in duplicate and repeated. Representative images were captured on using Delta Vision Deconvolution Microscope System (Nikon TE-200 Microscope) at the UCSD Digital Imaging Core Facility.

The biosynthetic pathway for S. aureus carotenoids⁶ includes the essential functions of genes crtM and crtN, encoding dehydrosqualene synthase and dehydrosqualene desaturase, respectively (FIG. 1 a). To probe the biological activities of the S. aureus pigment, an isogenic mutant of a golden-colored human clinical isolate by allelic replacement of crtM was generated (FIG. 1 a). Consistent with previous reports, pigmentation of the wild-type (WT) strain became apparent in early stationary phase of growth and continued to intensify before reaching a plateau at 36-48 h (FIG. 1 b). The ΔCrtM mutant was nonpigmented and lacked the characteristic triple-peak spectral profile of wild-type carotenoid at 440, 462 and 491 nM wavelengths (FIG. 1 b). No differences in growth rate, stationary phase density, surface charge, buoyancy or hydrophobicity were observed between WT and ΔCrtM S. aureus (FIGS. 5 a-d). S. aureus crtM and crtN together are sufficient for production of 4,4′-diaponeurosporene. To facilitate gain of function analyses, both genes were expressed in the nonpigmented Streptococcus pyogenes, a human pathogen associated with a disease spectrum similar to that of S. aureus. When transformed with the pCrtMN plasmid, S. pyogenes gained yellow pigmentation (FIG. 1 b) with the spectral characteristics of a carotenoid. Complementation of the S. aureus ΔCrtM mutant with pCrtMN vector also fully restored pigmentation (FIG. 1 b).

One important mechanism by which phagocytic cells eliminate pathogens is through release of reactive oxygen species generated by NADPH oxidase. It has been suggested that bacterial carotenoids such as those expressed by S. aureus could serve a protective function against these defense molecules. To test this experimentally, the susceptibility of WT and ΔCrtM S. aureus to oxidants in vitro was compared. As shown in FIGS. 1 c and 1 d, the ΔCrtM mutant was killed more efficiently by hydrogen peroxide and singlet oxygen compared to the WT S. aureus strain. Complementation with pCrtMN restored the ability of the ΔCrtM mutant to resist singlet oxygen killing (FIG. 1 d). Similarly, heterologous expression of staphylococcal pigment in S. pyogenes led to a significant decrease in susceptibility to singlet oxygen (FIG. 1 e).

It was then determined whether the observed antioxidant activity of the S. aureus carotenoid translated to increased bacterial resistance to innate immune clearance using two ex vivo assay systems: human or mouse whole blood survival and coculture with purified human neutrophils. WT S. aureus survived significantly better than the nonpigmented ΔCrtM intracellularly within human neutrophils (FIG. 2 a, FIG. 6 f) and in whole blood of normal mice or human donors (FIGS. 2 b, e). The former effect was not explained by differences in the rate of phagocytosis, since uptake of the WT S. aureus and ΔCrtM mutant was comparable (FIG. 6 a). Nor were differences attributable to changes in the magnitude of neutrophil oxidative burst, since uptake of WT and mutant strains produced similar results in a nitroblue tetrazolium (NBT) reduction assay (FIG. 6 b). Complementation of the S. aureus ΔCrtM mutant with pCrtMN restored resistance to killing by mouse whole blood (FIG. 2 b). Likewise, the pigmented S. pyogenes expressing staphylococcal carotenoid showed enhanced survival in human neutrophils versus the parent strain (FIG. 2 c).

To verify the association of S. aureus carotenoid expression with enhanced phagocyte resistance was a direct consequence of its antioxidant properties, assays were repeated in the presence of the oxidative burst inhibitor diphenyleneiodonium (DPI). WT and ΔCrtM S. aureus survived equally well in human neutrophils (FIG. 2 d) and mouse blood (FIG. 6 d) when oxidative burst was inhibited by DPI. Gp47^(Phox−/−) is an inherited defect in phagocyte oxidative burst function commonly found in chronic granulomatous disease (CGD) patients, and the gp91^(Phox−/−) mouse represents a model of human X-linked CGD. The survival advantage of WT over nonpigmented ΔCrtM S. aureus was evident only in the blood of normal humans and mice (CD1 or C57B1/6), and not in the blood of a human gp47^(phox−/−) patient or gp91^(Phox−/−) mice lacking NADPH oxidase activity (FIG. 2 e, f).

It was recently reported that the apparent neutrophil killing of pathogens by reactive oxygen species could largely reflect the activation of granule proteases mediated through changes in potassium flux. There was no difference in the susceptibility of WT and ΔCrtM S. aureus to the antimicrobial action of cathepsin G, and both strains were resistant to human neutrophil elastase as previously observed for S. aureus (FIG. 6 d). Other effector molecules of mammalian neutrophils critical to innate immune defense are the cathelicidin family of antimicrobial peptides. The carotenoid-deficient S. aureus mutant was equally susceptible to killing by the murine cathelicidin mCRAMP when compared to the WT strain (FIG. 6 e). These results support a primary role for the free-radical scavenging antioxidant properties of the S. aureus carotenoid in resistance to neutrophil-mediated killing.

The in vitro and ex vivo results demonstrate that S. aureus carotenoid is both necessary and sufficient to promote oxidant resistance and phagocyte survival. To assess the significance of these observations to disease pathogenesis, a murine subcutaneous challenge model was developed. In these studies, individual animals were injected simultaneously in one flank with the WT S. aureus strain and the opposite flank with the ΔCrtM mutant. At the site of WT injection (10⁶ cfu), mice developed sizable abscess lesions reaching a cumulative size of 80 mm² by day 4; injection of an equivalent inoculum of the carotenoid-deficient mutant on the contralateral flank failed to produce visible lesions (FIG. 3 a). Quantitative culture from skin lesions at two different challenge doses (10⁶ cfu to 10⁷ cfu) consistently demonstrated significantly higher numbers of surviving WT S. aureus compared to the ΔCrtM mutant in the individual mice (FIG. 3 a). To corroborate that an antioxidant effect is key to the mechanism of protection afforded by the S. aureus carotenoid in vivo, the subcutaneous infection experiment was repeated in gp91^(Phox−/−) mice. In the absence of host NADPH oxidase function, WT and ΔCrtM mutant S. aureus produced lesions of similar cumulative size and no survival advantage was detected on quantitative abscess culture (FIG. 3 b). It was then determined that S. aureus carotenoid was sufficient to enhance bacterial virulence by comparing the course of infection produced by S. pyogenes expressing CrtMN to controls transformed with vector alone. In FIG. 3 c, lesions generated by the carotenoid-expressing strain were significantly larger and contained greater numbers of surviving bacteria than those produced by the WT strain. Raw data from the in vivo experiments is provided in Table 2.

TABLE 2 Lesion size and bacterial culture counts from in vivo mouse challenge studies Mouse Bacterial Dose No Lesion size (mm²) Lesion size (mm²) Lesion culture (cfu) Lesion culture (cfu) Strain Strain (cfu) tested median/mean (Range: low-high) median/mean (Range: low-high) CD1 S. aureus WT 10⁶ 10 5.5/8.2 0-42 4.6 × 10⁴/7.0 × 10⁴ 1.2 × 10³-3.2 × 10⁵ CD1 ΔCrtM mutant 10⁶ 10 0.0/0.2 0-2  1.1 × 10⁴/1.9 × 10⁴ 6.0 × 10¹-7.5 × 10⁴ CD1 S. aureus WT 10⁷ 10 13.0/17.9 0-55 4.0 × 10⁶/1.2 × 10⁷ 4.4 × 10⁴-7.9 × 10⁷ CD1 ΔCrtM mutant 10⁷ 10 2.5/6.8 0-32 3.8 × 10⁶/3.3 × 10⁹ 7.0 × 10²-1.5 × 10⁷ Phox^(−/−) S. aureus WT 10⁶ 11 4.0/7.0 0-18 7.7 × 10⁶/2.1 × 10⁵ 1.6 × 10²-1.2 × 10⁶ Phox^(−/−) ΔCrtM mutant 10⁶ 11 4.0/6.6 0-20 4.1 × 10⁴/1.7 × 10⁵ 1.5 × 10²-1.0 × 10⁶ CD1 S. pyogenes + 10⁷ 14 20.0/22.4 0-75 6.4 × 10⁷/1.0 × 10⁹ 5.0 × 10¹-1.3 × 10¹⁰ vector only CD1 S. pyogenes + 10⁷ 14 6.0/7.0 0-21 1.6 × 10⁷/3.3 × 10⁷ 5.0 × 10¹-9.0 × 10⁷ pCrtMN

Given the protective effect provided to the bacteria by the golden yellow pigments, a pharmacologic agent that inhibits carotenogenesis might render S. aureus more susceptible to immune clearance. The mixed function oxidase inhibitor 2-diethylaminoethyl-2,2-diphenyl-valerate (SKF 525-A, Calbiochem) was previously shown to inhibit pigment formation in S. aureus, though a moderate residual accumulation of δ carotenoid intermediate was noted in those experiments. Shown in FIG. 4 a, a dose-dependent decrease in pigment production in the WT strain of S. aureus grown in the presence of this agent was obtained. Blocking S. aureus pigment formation led to a dose-dependent increase in the susceptibility of the organism to singlet oxygen killing (FIG. 4 b), and a decrease in its ability of WT S. aureus to survive in human whole blood (FIG. 4 c). As a control, the ΔCrtM mutant was exposed to SKF 525-A in parallel experiments with no significant effects on oxidant susceptibility or blood survival (FIG. 4 b, c).

Golden color imparted by carotenoid pigments is the eponymous feature of the human pathogen Staphylococcus aureus. A molecular genetic analysis pairing mutagenesis and heterologous expression was performed to show that this hallmark phenotype is in fact a virulence factor, serving to protect the bacterium from phagocytic killing through its antioxidant properties. In the present era, effective control of this important disease agent is compromised by rapid evolution of antimicrobial resistance in both community and hospital settings. In principle, the inhibition of carotenogenesis may offer a novel therapeutic approach to the treatment of complicated S. aureus infections, effectively rendering the pathogen more susceptible to clearance by normal host innate immune defenses.

In addition, WT S. aureus survived significantly better than the nonpigmented ΔCrtM in whole blood of human donors or normal mice and intracellularly within human neutrophils. The latter effect was not explained by differences in the rate of phagocytosis, since uptake of the WT S. aureus and ΔCrtM mutant was comparable. Nor were differences attributable to changes in the magnitude of neutrophil oxidative burst, since uptake of WT and mutant strains produced similar results in a nitroblue tetrazolium (NBT) reduction assay. Complementation of the S. aureus ΔCrtM mutant with pCrtMN restored resistance to killing by mouse whole blood or human neutrophils. Likewise, the pigmented S. pyogenes expressing staphylococcal carotenoid showed enhanced survival in human neutrophils compared to the parent strain.

To verify the association of S. aureus carotenoid expression with enhanced phagocyte resistance was a direct consequence of its antioxidant properties, assays were repeated in the presence of the oxidative burst inhibitor diphenyleneiodonium (DPI). WT and ΔCrtM S. aureus survived equally well in human neutrophils and mouse blood when oxidative burst was inhibited by DPI. The gp91^(Phox−/−) mouse represents a model of human X-linked chronic granulomatous disease, an inherited defect in phagocyte oxidative burst function. The survival advantage of WT over nonpigmented ΔCrtM S. aureus was evident only in the blood of normal mice (CD1 or C57B1/6), and not in the blood of gp91^(Phox−/−) mice lacking NADPH oxidase activity.

It was recently reported that the apparent neutrophil killing of pathogens by reactive oxygen species could largely reflect the activation of granule proteases mediated through changes in potassium flux. No difference was identified in the susceptibility of WT and ΔCrtM S. aureus to the antimicrobial action of cathepsin G, and both strains were resistant to human neutrophil elastase as previously observed for S. aureus. Other effector molecules of mammalian neutrophils critical to innate immune defense are the cathelicidin family of antimicrobial peptides. The carotenoid-deficient S. aureus mutant was equally susceptible to killing by the murine cathelicidin mCRAMP when compared to the WT strain. These results support a primary role for the free-radical scavenging antioxidant properties of the S. aureus carotenoid in resistance to neutrophil-mediated killing.

The in vitro and ex vivo results demonstrate that S. aureus carotenoid is both necessary and sufficient to promote oxidant resistance and phagocyte survival. To assess the significance of these observations to disease pathogenesis, a murine model for subcutaneous challenge was developed. In these studies, individual animals were injected simultaneously in one flank with the WT S. aureus strain and the opposite flank with the ΔCrtM mutant. At the site of WT injection mice developed sizable subcutaneous abscesses, injection of an equivalent inoculum of the carotenoid-deficient mutant on the contralateral flank failed to produce visible abscesses. Quantitative culture from skin lesions consistently demonstrated significantly higher numbers of surviving WT S. aureus compared to the ΔCrtM mutant in the individual mice. To corroborate that an antioxidant effect is key to the mechanism of protection afforded by the S. aureus carotenoid in vivo, the subcutaneous infection experiment was repeated in gp91^(Phox−/−) mice. In the absence of host NADPH oxidase function, WT and ΔCrtM mutant S. aureus produced lesions of similar cumulative size and no survival advantage was detected on quantitative abscess cultures. Furthermore, while S. pyogenes infection was associated with development of necrotic ulcers rather than abscess formation, lesions generated by the carotenoid-expressing strain were significantly larger and contained greater numbers of surviving bacteria than those produced by the WT strain.

Given the protective effect provided to the bacteria by the golden yellow pigments, a pharmacologic agent that inhibited carotenogenesis was tested to determine whether the agent might render S. aureus more susceptible to immune clearance. The mixed function oxidase inhibitor 2-diethylaminoethyl-2,2-diphenyl-valerate (SKF 525-A, Calbiochem) was previously shown to inhibit pigment formation in S. aureus, and a dose-dependent decrease in carotenoid production was demonstrated in the WT strain of S. aureus grown in the presence of the agent. Blocking S. aureus pigment formation led to a commensurate dose-dependent increase in the susceptibility of the organism to singlet oxygen killing and a decrease in its ability to survive in human whole blood. As a control, the ΔCrtM mutant was exposed to SKF 525-A in parallel experiments with no significant effects on oxidant susceptibility or blood survival.

Because the first committed steps in staphyloxanthin biosynthesis (FPP→presqualene diphosphate→dehydrosqualene, FIG. 1 a) appear remarkably similar to the first steps (FPP→presqualene diphosphate→squalene) in cholesterol and ergosterol biosynthesis (FIG. 1 b), known inhibitors of squalene synthase developed in the context of cholesterol lowering therapy and as anti-parasitic agents (inhibiting ergosterol biosynthesis in Trypanosoma cruzi, the causative agent of Chagas' disease) can also inhibit CrtM (i.e. dehydrosqualene synthase), thereby blocking pigment formation and invasive potential. A series of known SQS inhibitors were tested for inhibition of staphyloxanthin biosynthesis. One inhibitor, (rac BMS-187745) showed particularly potent effects, having an IC₅₀ of ˜1 μM (FIG. 7). Since Formula III (and its analogs) have been advanced through Phase II human clinical trials as cholesterol-lowering agents, the agent is clearly of potential interest as a new lead compound inhibiting staphyloxanthin virulence factor formation in S. aureus. To confirm whether formula III actually inhibits CrtM, the S. aureus enzyme was expressed in E. coli and the protein isolated. Recombinant CrtM was found to be enzymatically active and potently inhibited by formula II with an IC₅₀ of 600 nM, corresponding to a K_(i) of ˜1.5 nM, strongly supporting CrtM as the target of this phosphonosulfonate drug in S. aureus.

Inhibition of staphyloxanthin biosynthesis by formula III could represent a purely virulence factor-based therapy for S. aureus infection. Incubation with up to 2 mM formula III did not affect either S. aureus growth characteristics or survival through 48 hr in culture. However, after incubation with 100 μM formula III, the resulting non-pigmented S. aureus were ˜15-fold more susceptible to killing by 1.5% hydrogen peroxide and ˜4-fold less able to survive in freshly isolated human whole blood than were normally pigmented S. aureus treated with PBS control. As expected, formula III had no effect on the growth of three human cell lines (MCF-7, NCI-H460 and SF-268) since there only cholesterol biosynthesis is targeted, and cholesterol is generally abundant in serum (or diet).

Given the in vitro abilities of formula III treatment to increase S. aureus susceptibility to oxidants and blood (neutrophil-mediated) clearance, in vivo testing was performed. Under intraperitoneal challenge one group of mice (n=14) was treated with 1 0.5 mg b.i.d. (days −1, 0, 1 and 2), and a second group (n=13) with equivalent volume injections of PBS control. Upon sacrifice at 72 h, S. aureus bacterial counts in the kidneys of mice treated with 1 were significantly lower than those of the control group (P<0.001), with cfus in 8/13 mice below the detection threshold, to be compared with 2/14 in the control group.

The results show that a drug developed for therapy of hypercholesterolemia via inhibition of human squalene synthase also neutralizes S. aureus dehydro-squalene synthase (CrtM), blocking production of staphyloxanthin, an important virulence factor for the bacterium. This provides a novel pharmacological lead and a basis for rational drug design against this major human pathogen, which has become increasingly resistant to conventional antibiotics. The data also show utility of an anti-infective without direct bactericidal properties that functions, instead, to render the pathogen susceptible to normal host innate immune clearance. Such anti-infectives exert less selective pressure for evolution of resistance, and promise increased specificity of action, reducing undesired activities against the normal human micro-flora.

Although a number of embodiments and features have been described above, it will be understood by those skilled in the art that modifications and variations of the described embodiments and features may be made without departing from the teachings of the disclosure or the scope of the invention as defined by the appended claims. 

1. A method of preventing or treating a microbial infection wherein the microbe expresses a carotenoid, the method comprising contacting the microbe with at least one agent that inhibits the production of the carotenoid rendering the microbe more susceptible to oxidative damage.
 2. The method of claim 1, wherein the at least one agent inhibits crtM (dehydrosqualene synthase) or crtN (dehydrosqualene desaturase), wherein the agent reduces the production of a carotenoid.
 3. The method of claim 1, wherein the at least one agent is a squalene synthetase inhibitor.
 4. The method of claim 1 or 2, wherein the at least one agent comprises formula I or II:

wherein: m is 0, 1, 2 or 3; n is an integer between 1 and 10 inclusive; each D and E are each independently selected from the group consisting of: H, aryl, substituted aryl, alkyl, substituted alkyl, carboxyl, aminocarbonyl, alkylsulfonylaminocarboxyl, alkoxycarbonyl, and halo; M¹, M², and M³ are each independently selected from the group consisting of metals, ammonium and esters thereof; R¹ is selected from the group consisting of: H, aryl, substituted aryl, alkyl, substituted alkyl, carboxyl, aminocarbonyl, alkylsulfonylaminocarboxyl, alkoxycarbonyl, and halo, or R¹ and R², together with the carbons to which they are bound, can be joined to form a 4 to 7 membered ring or a substituted 4 to 7 membered ring; R² is selected from the group consisting of: H, aryl, substituted aryl, alkyl, substituted alkyl, carboxyl, aminocarbonyl, alkylsulfonylaminocarboxyl, alkoxycarbonyl, and halo, or R² and R¹, together with the carbons to which they are bound, can be joined to form a 4 to 7 membered ring or a substituted 4 to 7 membered ring, or R² and R³, together with the carbons to which they are bound, can be joined to form a 4 to 7 membered ring or a substituted 4 to 7 membered ring; R³ is selected from the group consisting of: H, aryl, substituted aryl, alkyl, substituted alkyl, carboxyl, aminocarbonyl, alkylsulfonylaminocarboxyl, alkoxycarbonyl, and halo, or R³ and R², together with the carbons to which they are bound, can be joined to form a 4 to 7 membered ring or a substituted 4 to 7 membered ring, or R³ and R⁴, together with the carbons to which they are bound, can be joined to form a 4 to 7 membered ring or a substituted 4 to 7 membered ring; R⁴ is selected from the group consisting of: H, aryl, substituted aryl, alkyl, substituted alkyl, carboxyl, aminocarbonyl, alkylsulfonylaminocarboxyl, alkoxycarbonyl, and halo, or R⁴ and R³, together with the carbons to which they are bound, can be joined to form a 4 to 7 membered ring or a substituted 4 to 7 membered ring; R⁵, R⁶, R⁷, R⁸, and R⁹ are each independently selected from the group consisting of: H, aryl, substituted aryl, alkyl, substituted alkyl, carboxyl, aminocarbonyl, alkylsulfonylaminocarboxyl, alkoxycarbonyl, and halo; L¹ is —S—, —SO—, —SO₂—, —O—, —N(R¹⁹)—, or —C(R²⁰)(R²¹)—; wherein R¹⁹, R²⁰ and R²¹ are each independently selected from the group consisting of: H, aryl, substituted aryl, alkyl, substituted alkyl, carboxyl, aminocarbonyl, alkylsulfonylaminocarboxyl, alkoxycarbonyl, and halo;

wherein: x is 0, 1, 2, or 3; y is an integer between 1 and 10 inclusive; each G and J are independently selected from the group consisting of: H, aryl, substituted aryl, alkyl, substituted alkyl, carboxyl, aminocarbonyl, alkylsulfonylaminocarboxyl, alkoxycarbonyl, and halo; M⁴, M⁵, and M⁶ are each independently selected from the group consisting of metals, ammonium and esters thereof; R¹⁰ is selected from the group consisting of: H, aryl, substituted aryl, alkyl, substituted alkyl, carboxyl, aminocarbonyl, alkylsulfonylaminocarboxyl, alkoxycarbonyl, and halo, or R¹⁰ and R¹¹, together with the carbons to which they are bound, can be joined to form a 4 to 7 membered ring or a substituted 4 to 7 membered ring; R¹¹ is selected from the group consisting of: H, aryl, substituted aryl, alkyl, substituted alkyl, carboxyl, aminocarbonyl, alkylsulfonylaminocarboxyl, alkoxycarbonyl, and halo, or R¹¹ and R¹⁰, together with the carbons to which they are bound, can be joined to form a 4 to 7 membered ring or a substituted 4 to 7 membered ring, or R¹¹ and R¹², together with the carbons to which they are bound, can be joined to form a 4 to 7 membered ring or a substituted 4 to 7 membered ring; R¹² is selected from the group consisting of: H, aryl, substituted aryl, alkyl, substituted alkyl, carboxyl, aminocarbonyl, alkylsulfonylaminocarboxyl, alkoxycarbonyl, and halo, or R¹² and R¹¹, together with the carbons to which they are bound, can be joined to form a 4 to 7 membered ring or a substituted 4 to 7 membered ring, or R¹² and R¹³, together with the carbons to which they are bound, can be joined to form a 4 to 7 membered ring or a substituted 4 to 7 membered ring; R¹³ is selected from the group consisting of: H, aryl, substituted aryl, alkyl, substituted alkyl, carboxyl, aminocarbonyl, alkylsulfonylaminocarboxyl, alkoxycarbonyl, and halo, or R¹³ and R¹², together with the carbons to which they are bound, can be joined to form a 4 to 7 membered ring or a substituted 4 to 7 membered ring; R¹⁴, R¹⁵, R¹⁶, R¹⁷, and R¹⁸ are each independently selected from the group consisting of: H, aryl, substituted aryl, alkyl, substituted alkyl, carboxyl, aminocarbonyl, alkylsulfonylaminocarboxyl, alkoxycarbonyl, and halo; L² is —S—, —SO—, —SO₂—, —O—, —N(R²²)—, or —C(R²³)(R²⁴)—; wherein R²², R²³ and R²⁴ are each independently selected from the group consisting of: H, aryl, substituted aryl, alkyl, substituted alkyl, carboxyl, aminocarbonyl, alkylsulfonylaminocarboxyl, alkoxycarbonyl, and halo.
 5. The method of claim 4, wherein: m is zero or one; n is and integer between 1 and 5, inclusive; each D and E are independently selected from H, alkyl, substituted alkyl and halo; R¹ is selected from the group consisting of: H, aryl, substituted aryl, alkyl, substituted alkyl, and halo or R¹ and R², together with the carbons to which they are bound, can be joined to form a furan, substituted furan, pyran, substituted pyran, pyrrole, substituted pyrrole, pyridine, substituted pyridine, aromatic, or substituted aromatic, cyclopentyl, substituted cyclopentyl, cyclohexyl, or substituted cyclohexyl ring; R² is selected from the group consisting of: H, aryl, substituted aryl, alkyl, substituted alkyl, and halo or R² and R¹, together with the carbons to which they are bound, can be joined to form a furan, substituted furan, pyran, substituted pyran, pyrrole, substituted pyrrole, pyridine, substituted pyridine, aromatic, or substituted aromatic, cyclopentyl, substituted cyclopentyl, cyclohexyl, or substituted cyclohexyl ring, or R² and R³, together with the carbons to which they are bound, can be joined to form a furan, substituted furan, pyran, substituted pyran, pyrrole, substituted pyrrole, pyridine, substituted pyridine, aromatic, or substituted aromatic, cyclopentyl, substituted cyclopentyl, cyclohexyl, or substituted cyclohexyl ring; R³ is selected from the group consisting of: H, aryl, substituted aryl, alkyl, substituted alkyl, and halo or R³ and R², together with the carbons to which they are bound, can be joined to form a furan, substituted furan, pyran, substituted pyran, pyrrole, substituted pyrrole, pyridine, substituted pyridine, aromatic, or substituted aromatic, cyclopentyl, substituted cyclopentyl, cyclohexyl, or substituted cyclohexyl ring, or R³ and R⁴, together with the carbons to which they are bound, can be joined to form a furan, substituted furan, pyran, substituted pyran, pyrrole, substituted pyrrole, pyridine, substituted pyridine, aromatic, or substituted aromatic, cyclopentyl, substituted cyclopentyl, cyclohexyl, or substituted cyclohexyl ring; R⁴ is selected from the group consisting of: H, aryl, substituted aryl, alkyl, substituted alkyl, and halo or R⁴ and R³, together with the carbons to which they are bound, can be joined to form a furan, substituted furan, pyran, substituted pyran, pyrrole, substituted pyrrole, pyridine, substituted pyridine, aromatic, or substituted aromatic, cyclopentyl, substituted cyclopentyl, cyclohexyl, or substituted cyclohexyl ring; R⁵, R⁶, R⁷, R⁸, and R⁹ are each independently selected from the group consisting of: H, aryl, substituted aryl, alkyl, substituted alkyl, and halo; R¹⁹, R²⁰ and R²¹ are each independently selected from the group consisting of: H, alkyl, and substituted alkyl; M¹, M², and M³ are each independently alkali metals; x is zero or one; y is and integer between 1 and 5, inclusive; each G and J are independently selected from H, alkyl, substituted alkyl and halo; R¹⁰ is selected from the group consisting of: H, aryl, substituted aryl, alkyl, substituted alkyl, and halo or R¹⁰ and R¹¹, together with the carbons to which they are bound, can be joined to form a furan, substituted furan, pyran, substituted pyran, pyrrole, substituted pyrrole, pyridine, substituted pyridine, aromatic, or substituted aromatic, cyclopentyl, substituted cyclopentyl, cyclohexyl, or substituted cyclohexyl ring; R¹¹ is selected from the group consisting of: H, aryl, substituted aryl, alkyl, substituted alkyl, and halo or R¹¹ and R¹⁰, together with the carbons to which they are bound, can be joined to form a furan, substituted furan, pyran, substituted pyran, pyrrole, substituted pyrrole, pyridine, substituted pyridine, aromatic, or substituted aromatic, cyclopentyl, substituted cyclopentyl, cyclohexyl, or substituted cyclohexyl ring, or R¹¹ and R¹², together with the carbons to which they are bound, can be joined to form a furan, substituted furan, pyran, substituted pyran, pyrrole, substituted pyrrole, pyridine, substituted pyridine, aromatic, or substituted aromatic, cyclopentyl, substituted cyclopentyl, cyclohexyl, or substituted cyclohexyl ring; R¹² is selected from the group consisting of: H, aryl, substituted aryl, alkyl, substituted alkyl, and halo or R¹² and R¹¹, together with the carbons to which they are bound, can be joined to form a furan, substituted furan, pyran, substituted pyran, pyrrole, substituted pyrrole, pyridine, substituted pyridine, aromatic, or substituted aromatic, cyclopentyl, substituted cyclopentyl, cyclohexyl, or substituted cyclohexyl ring, or R¹² and R¹³, together with the carbons to which they are bound, can be joined to form a furan, substituted furan, pyran, substituted pyran, pyrrole, substituted pyrrole, pyridine, substituted pyridine, aromatic, or substituted aromatic, cyclopentyl, substituted cyclopentyl, cyclohexyl, or substituted cyclohexyl ring; R¹³ is selected from the group consisting of: H, aryl, substituted aryl, alkyl, substituted alkyl, and halo or R¹³ and R¹², together with the carbons to which they are bound, can be joined to form a furan, substituted furan, pyran, substituted pyran, pyrrole, substituted pyrrole, pyridine, substituted pyridine, aromatic, or substituted aromatic, cyclopentyl, substituted cyclopentyl, cyclohexyl, or substituted cyclohexyl ring; R¹⁴, R¹⁵, R¹⁶, R¹⁷, and R¹⁸ are each independently selected from the group consisting of: H, aryl, substituted aryl, alkyl, substituted alkyl, and halo; R²², R²³ and R²⁴ are each independently selected from the group consisting of: H, alkyl, and substituted alkyl; M⁴, M⁵, and M⁶ are each independently alkali metals.
 6. The method of claim 4, wherein the at least one agent is selected from the group consisting of:


7. The method of claim 2, wherein the crtN inhibitor comprises a diphenylamine, diphenylamine derivatives and analogs thereof.
 8. The method of claim 7, wherein the diphenylamine derivative is diclofenac sodium, mefenamic acid or lobenzarit disodium.
 9. The method of claim 1, wherein the at least one agent is a bisphosphonates.
 10. The method of claim 1, wherein the carotenoid is staphyloxanthin.
 11. The method of claim 2, wherein the at least one agent comprises at least two agents.
 12. The method of claim 7, wherein the at least two agents are selected from the group consisting of a crtN inhibitor, a crtM inhibitor, a farnesyl diphosphate synthase inhibitor and any combination thereof.
 13. A compound represented by formula I or II:

wherein: m is 0, 1, 2 or 3; n is an integer between 1 and 10 inclusive; each D and E are each independently selected from the group consisting of: H, aryl, substituted aryl, alkyl, substituted alkyl, carboxyl, aminocarbonyl, alkylsulfonylaminocarboxyl, alkoxycarbonyl, and halo; M¹, M², and M³ are each independently selected from the group consisting of metals, ammonium and esters thereof; R¹ is selected from the group consisting of: H, aryl, substituted aryl, alkyl, substituted alkyl, carboxyl, aminocarbonyl, alkylsulfonylaminocarboxyl, alkoxycarbonyl, and halo, or R¹ and R², together with the carbons to which they are bound, can be joined to form a 4 to 7 membered ring or a substituted 4 to 7 membered ring; R² is selected from the group consisting of: H, aryl, substituted aryl, alkyl, substituted alkyl, carboxyl, aminocarbonyl, alkylsulfonylaminocarboxyl, alkoxycarbonyl, and halo, or R² and R¹, together with the carbons to which they are bound, can be joined to form a 4 to 7 membered ring or a substituted 4 to 7 membered ring, or R² and R³, together with the carbons to which they are bound, can be joined to form a 4 to 7 membered ring or a substituted 4 to 7 membered ring; R³ is selected from the group consisting of: H, aryl, substituted aryl, alkyl, substituted alkyl, carboxyl, aminocarbonyl, alkylsulfonylaminocarboxyl, alkoxycarbonyl, and halo, or R³ and R², together with the carbons to which they are bound, can be joined to form a 4 to 7 membered ring or a substituted 4 to 7 membered ring, or R³ and R⁴, together with the carbons to which they are bound, can be joined to form a 4 to 7 membered ring or a substituted 4 to 7 membered ring; R⁴ is selected from the group consisting of: H, aryl, substituted aryl, alkyl, substituted alkyl, carboxyl, aminocarbonyl, alkylsulfonylaminocarboxyl, alkoxycarbonyl, and halo, or R⁴ and R³, together with the carbons to which they are bound, can be joined to form a 4 to 7 membered ring or a substituted 4 to 7 membered ring; R⁵, R⁶, R⁷, R⁸, and R⁹ are each independently selected from the group consisting of: H, aryl, substituted aryl, alkyl, substituted alkyl, carboxyl, aminocarbonyl, alkylsulfonylaminocarboxyl, alkoxycarbonyl, and halo; L¹ is —S—, —SO—, —SO₂—, —O—, —N(R¹⁹)—, or —C(R²⁰)(R²¹)—; wherein R¹⁹, R²⁰ and R²¹ are each independently selected from the group consisting of: H, aryl, substituted aryl, alkyl, substituted alkyl, carboxyl, aminocarbonyl, alkylsulfonylaminocarboxyl, alkoxycarbonyl, and halo;

wherein: x is 0, 1, 2, or 3; y is an integer between 1 and 10 inclusive; each G and J are independently selected from the group consisting of: H, aryl, substituted aryl, alkyl, substituted alkyl, carboxyl, aminocarbonyl, alkylsulfonylaminocarboxyl, alkoxycarbonyl, and halo; M⁴, M⁵, and M⁶ are each independently selected from the group consisting of metals, ammonium and esters thereof; R¹⁰ is selected from the group consisting of: H, aryl, substituted aryl, alkyl, substituted alkyl, carboxyl, aminocarbonyl, alkylsulfonylaminocarboxyl, alkoxycarbonyl, and halo, or R¹⁰ and R¹¹, together with the carbons to which they are bound, can be joined to form a 4 to 7 membered ring or a substituted 4 to 7 membered ring; R¹¹ is selected from the group consisting of: H, aryl, substituted aryl, alkyl, substituted alkyl, carboxyl, aminocarbonyl, alkylsulfonylaminocarboxyl, alkoxycarbonyl, and halo, or R¹¹ and R¹⁰, together with the carbons to which they are bound, can be joined to form a 4 to 7 membered ring or a substituted 4 to 7 membered ring, or R¹¹ and R¹², together with the carbons to which they are bound, can be joined to form a 4 to 7 membered ring or a substituted 4 to 7 membered ring; R¹² is selected from the group consisting of: H, aryl, substituted aryl, alkyl, substituted alkyl, carboxyl, aminocarbonyl, alkylsulfonylaminocarboxyl, alkoxycarbonyl, and halo, or R¹² and R¹¹, together with the carbons to which they are bound, can be joined to form a 4 to 7 membered ring or a substituted 4 to 7 membered ring, or R¹² and R¹³, together with the carbons to which they are bound, can be joined to form a 4 to 7 membered ring or a substituted 4 to 7 membered ring; R¹³ is selected from the group consisting of: H, aryl, substituted aryl, alkyl, substituted alkyl, carboxyl, aminocarbonyl, alkylsulfonylaminocarboxyl, alkoxycarbonyl, and halo, or R¹³ and R¹², together with the carbons to which they are bound, can be joined to form a 4 to 7 membered ring or a substituted 4 to 7 membered ring; R¹⁴, R¹⁵, R¹⁶, R¹⁷, and R¹⁸ are each independently selected from the group consisting of: H, aryl, substituted aryl, alkyl, substituted alkyl, carboxyl, aminocarbonyl, alkylsulfonylaminocarboxyl, alkoxycarbonyl, and halo; L² is —S—, —SO—, —SO₂—, —O—, —N(R²²)—, or —C(R²³)(R²⁴)—; wherein R²², R²³ and R²⁴ are each independently selected from the group consisting of: H, aryl, substituted aryl, alkyl, substituted alkyl, carboxyl, aminocarbonyl, alkylsulfonylaminocarboxyl, alkoxycarbonyl, and halo.
 14. A compound as in claim 13, wherein: m is zero or one; n is and integer between 1 and 5, inclusive; each D and E are independently selected from H, alkyl, substituted alkyl and halo; R¹ is selected from the group consisting of: H, aryl, substituted aryl, alkyl, substituted alkyl, and halo or R¹ and R², together with the carbons to which they are bound, can be joined to form a furan, substituted furan, pyran, substituted pyran, pyrrole, substituted pyrrole, pyridine, substituted pyridine, aromatic, or substituted aromatic, cyclopentyl, substituted cyclopentyl, cyclohexyl, or substituted cyclohexyl ring; R² is selected from the group consisting of: H, aryl, substituted aryl, alkyl, substituted alkyl, and halo or R² and R¹, together with the carbons to which they are bound, can be joined to form a furan, substituted furan, pyran, substituted pyran, pyrrole, substituted pyrrole, pyridine, substituted pyridine, aromatic, or substituted aromatic, cyclopentyl, substituted cyclopentyl, cyclohexyl, or substituted cyclohexyl ring, or R² and R³, together with the carbons to which they are bound, can be joined to form a furan, substituted furan, pyran, substituted pyran, pyrrole, substituted pyrrole, pyridine, substituted pyridine, aromatic, or substituted aromatic, cyclopentyl, substituted cyclopentyl, cyclohexyl, or substituted cyclohexyl ring; R³ is selected from the group consisting of: H, aryl, substituted aryl, alkyl, substituted alkyl, and halo or R³ and R², together with the carbons to which they are bound, can be joined to form a furan, substituted furan, pyran, substituted pyran, pyrrole, substituted pyrrole, pyridine, substituted pyridine, aromatic, or substituted aromatic, cyclopentyl, substituted cyclopentyl, cyclohexyl, or substituted cyclohexyl ring, or R³ and R⁴, together with the carbons to which they are bound, can be joined to form a furan, substituted furan, pyran, substituted pyran, pyrrole, substituted pyrrole, pyridine, substituted pyridine, aromatic, or substituted aromatic, cyclopentyl, substituted cyclopentyl, cyclohexyl, or substituted cyclohexyl ring; R⁴ is selected from the group consisting of: H, aryl, substituted aryl, alkyl, substituted alkyl, and halo or R⁴ and R³, together with the carbons to which they are bound, can be joined to form a furan, substituted furan, pyran, substituted pyran, pyrrole, substituted pyrrole, pyridine, substituted pyridine, aromatic, or substituted aromatic, cyclopentyl, substituted cyclopentyl, cyclohexyl, or substituted cyclohexyl ring; R⁵, R⁶, R⁷, R⁸, and R⁹ are each independently selected from the group consisting of: H, aryl, substituted aryl, alkyl, substituted alkyl, and halo; R¹⁹, R²⁰ and R²¹ are each independently selected from the group consisting of: H, alkyl, and substituted alkyl; M¹, M², and M³ are each independently alkali metals; x is zero or one; y is and integer between 1 and 5, inclusive; each G and J are independently selected from H, alkyl, substituted alkyl and halo; R¹⁰ is selected from the group consisting of: H, aryl, substituted aryl, alkyl, substituted alkyl, and halo or R¹⁰ and R¹¹, together with the carbons to which they are bound, can be joined to form a furan, substituted furan, pyran, substituted pyran, pyrrole, substituted pyrrole, pyridine, substituted pyridine, aromatic, or substituted aromatic, cyclopentyl, substituted cyclopentyl, cyclohexyl, or substituted cyclohexyl ring; R¹¹ is selected from the group consisting of: H, aryl, substituted aryl, alkyl, substituted alkyl, and halo or R¹¹ and R¹⁰, together with the carbons to which they are bound, can be joined to form a furan, substituted furan, pyran, substituted pyran, pyrrole, substituted pyrrole, pyridine, substituted pyridine, aromatic, or substituted aromatic, cyclopentyl, substituted cyclopentyl, cyclohexyl, or substituted cyclohexyl ring, or R¹¹ and R¹², together with the carbons to which they are bound, can be joined to form a furan, substituted furan, pyran, substituted pyran, pyrrole, substituted pyrrole, pyridine, substituted pyridine, aromatic, or substituted aromatic, cyclopentyl, substituted cyclopentyl, cyclohexyl, or substituted cyclohexyl ring; R¹² is selected from the group consisting of: H, aryl, substituted aryl, alkyl, substituted alkyl, and halo or R¹² and R¹¹, together with the carbons to which they are bound, can be joined to form a furan, substituted furan, pyran, substituted pyran, pyrrole, substituted pyrrole, pyridine, substituted pyridine, aromatic, or substituted aromatic, cyclopentyl, substituted cyclopentyl, cyclohexyl, or substituted cyclohexyl ring, or R¹² and R¹³, together with the carbons to which they are bound, can be joined to form a furan, substituted furan, pyran, substituted pyran, pyrrole, substituted pyrrole, pyridine, substituted pyridine, aromatic, or substituted aromatic, cyclopentyl, substituted cyclopentyl, cyclohexyl, or substituted cyclohexyl ring; R¹³ is selected from the group consisting of: H, aryl, substituted aryl, alkyl, substituted alkyl, and halo or R¹³ and R¹², together with the carbons to which they are bound, can be joined to form a furan, substituted furan, pyran, substituted pyran, pyrrole, substituted pyrrole, pyridine, substituted pyridine, aromatic, or substituted aromatic, cyclopentyl, substituted cyclopentyl, cyclohexyl, or substituted cyclohexyl ring; R¹⁴, R¹⁵, R¹⁶, R¹⁷, and R¹⁸ are each independently selected from the group consisting of: H, aryl, substituted aryl, alkyl, substituted alkyl, and halo; R²², R²³ and R²⁴ are each independently selected from the group consisting of: H, alkyl, and substituted alkyl; M⁴, M⁵, and M⁶ are each independently alkali metals.
 15. A compound as in claim 13, wherein: m is one; n is three; each D and E are H; R¹ is H, F, or benzyl; R² is H, F or CF₃; R³ is H, F, CL, CF₃, t-butyl, n-propyl, or benzyl; R⁴is H or F; R⁵, R⁶, R⁷ and R⁹ are each H; R⁸ is H or F; M¹, M², and M³ are each potassium; L¹ is —O—, —NH— or CH₂; x is zero or one; y is three; each G and J are H; R¹⁰, R¹¹, R¹³, R¹⁴, R¹⁵, R¹⁶, R¹⁷, and R¹⁸ are each H; R¹² is H or CH₃ M⁴, M⁵, and M⁶ are each potassium; L² is —O—.
 16. A compound as in claim 13, selected from the group consisting of: potassium 1-sulfonato-4-(3-(4-fluorophenoxy)-phenyl)-butyl phosphonate; potassium 1-sulfonato-4-(3-(3,5-difluorophenoxy)-phenyl)-butyl phosphonate; (1S)potassium 1-sulfonato-4-(3-phenoxyphenyl)-butyl phosphonate; potassium 1-sulfonato-4-(3-(4-chlorophenoxy)-phenyl)-butyl phosphonate; potassium 1-sulfonato-4-(3-(3,4-difluorophenoxy)-phenyl)-butyl phosphonate; potassium 1-sulfonato-4-(3-(3-trifluoromethylphenoxy)-phenyl)-butyl phosphonate; potassium 1-sulfonato-4-(3-phenoxyphenyl)-butyl phosphonate; potassium 1-sulfonato-4-(3-(3-fluorophenoxy)-phenyl)-butyl phosphonate; potassium 1-sulfonato-4-(3-(4-phenylmethylphenoxy)-phenyl)-butyl phosphonate; potassium 1-sulfonato-4-(3-phenaminophenyl)-butyl phosphonate; potassium 1-sulfonato-4-(2-fluoro-5-(4-fluorophenoxy)-phenyl)-butyl phosphonate; potassium 1-sulfonato-4-(3-phenylmethylphenyl)-butyl phosphonate; potassium 1-sulfonato-4-(3-(2-fluorophenoxy)-phenyl)-butyl phosphonate; potassium 1-sulfonato-4-(3-(3-trifluoromethylphenoxy)-phenyl)-butyl phosphonate; potassium 1-sulfonato-4-(3-(4-propylphenoxy)-phenyl)-butyl phosphonate; potassium 1-sulfonato-4-(4-phenoxyphenyl)-butyl phosphonate; potassium 1-sulfonato-4-(4-phenylphenyl)-butyl phosphonate; potassium 1-sulfonato-4-(3-(4-(1,1-dimethylethyl)phenoxy)-phenyl)-butyl phosphonate; potassium 1-sulfonato-4-(4-(4-methylphenyl)phenyl)-butyl phosphonate; and potassium 1-sulfonato-4-(3-(2-phenylmethylphenoxy)-phenyl)-butyl phosphonate.
 17. A method of preventing or treating a microbial infection comprising administering to a subject inflicted with the infection the compound of claim 13, 14, or
 15. 18. The method of claim 17, wherein the microbial infection is a Staphylococcus infection.
 19. The method of claim 18, wherein the bacterial infection is caused by a Staphylococcus sp.
 20. The method of claim 19, wherein the Staphylococcus sp. is Staphylococcus aureus.
 21. A method to prevent, treat or improve the effective treatment of MRSA by contacting a microbe expressing a squalene synthase with the compound of Formula I or II.
 22. A method of inhibiting the growth of a microbe comprising contacting the microbe with an inhibiting effective amount of a squalene synthase inhibitor.
 23. The method of claim 22, wherein the contacting is in vitro.
 24. The method of claim 22, wherein the contacting is on a surface suspected of having a microbe.
 25. The method of claim 24, wherein the microbe comprises carotenoid.
 26. The method of claim 25, wherein the microbe is a bacteria.
 27. The method of claim 25, wherein the contacting is in vivo.
 28. The method of claim 27, wherein the contacting in vivo is by topical administration.
 29. The method of claim 26, wherein the bacteria is gram positive.
 30. The method of claim 29, wherein bacteria is Staphylococcus aureus or S. epidermidis.
 31. The method of claim 26, wherein the bacteria is gram negative.
 32. The method of claim 31, wherein the bacteria is selected from the group consisting of E. coli, P. aeruginosa, and S. typhimurium.
 33. The method of claim 21, wherein the squalene synthase inhibitor is Formula I or II, administered in combination with at least one antibiotic.
 34. The method of claim 33, wherein the antibiotic belongs to a class selected from the group consisting of aminoglycosides, penicillins, cephalosporins, carbapenems, monobactams, quinolones, tetracyclines, glycopeptides, chloramphenicol, clindamycin, trimethoprim, sulfamethoxazole, nitrofuirantoin, rifampin and mupirocin.
 35. The method of claim 33, wherein the antibiotic is selected from the group consisting of amikacin, gentamicin, kanamycin, netilmicin, t-obramycin, streptomycin, azithromycin, clarithromycin, erythromycin, erythromycin estolate/ethylsuccinate/gluceptatellactobionate/stearate, penicillin G, penicillin V, methicillin, nafcillin, oxacillin, cloxacillin, dicloxacillin, ampicillin, amoxicillin, ticarcillin, carbenicillin, mezlocillin, azlocillin, piperacillin, cephalothin, cefazolin, cefaclor, cefamandole, cefoxitin, cefuiroxime, cefonicid, cefmetazole, cefotetan, cefprozil, loracarbef, cefetamet, cefoperazone, cefotaxime, ceftizoxime, ceftriaxone, ceftazidime, cefepime, cefixime, cefpodoxime, cefsulodin, i-mipenem, aztreonam, fleroxacin, nalidixic acid, norfloxacin, ciprofloxacin, ofloxacin, enoxacin, lomefloxacin, cinoxacin, doxycycline, m-inocycline, tetracycline, vancomycin, and teicoplanin.
 36. The method of claim 33, wherein the squalene synthase inhibitor is Formula I or II, administered in combination with at least one antibiotic and an inhibitor of flavohemoglobin.
 37. The method of claim 36, wherein the flavohemoglobin is selected from the group consisting of miconozole, econozole, clortrimazole, and ketoconazole.
 38. The method of claim 36, wherein the antibiotic is selected from the group consisting of amikacin, gentamicin, kanamycin, netilmicin, t-obramycin, streptomycin, azithromycin, clarithromycin, erythromycin, erythromycin estolate/ethylsuccinate/gluceptatellactobionate/stearate, penicillin G, penicillin V, methicillin, nafcillin, oxacillin, cloxacillin, dicloxacillin, ampicillin, amoxicillin, ticarcillin, carbenicillin, mezlocillin, azlocillin, piperacillin, cephalothin, cefazolin, cefaclor, cefamandole, cefoxitin, cefuiroxime, cefonicid, cefmetazole, cefotetan, cefprozil, loracarbef, cefetamet, cefoperazone, cefotaxime, ceftizoxime, ceftriaxone, ceftazidime, cefepime, cefixime, cefpodoxime, cefsulodin, i-mipenem, aztreonam, fleroxacin, nalidixic acid, norfloxacin, ciprofloxacin, ofloxacin, enoxacin, lomefloxacin, cinoxacin, doxycycline, m-inocycline, tetracycline, vancomycin, and teicoplanin.
 39. A composition comprising a squalene synthase inhibitor and a pharmaceutically acceptable carrier.
 40. The composition of claim 39, wherein the composition is a lotion, cream, gel, ointment or spray.
 41. The composition of claim 39, wherein the composition is for topical administration.
 42. The composition of claim 39, wherein the inhibitor has the formula of Formula I or II. 